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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


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TEXT-BOOK   OF 
THE   ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK 


IRobert  1benr$  Smitb 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 


Text-Book  of  the  Elements  of  Machine  Work 

192  pp.,  5x8,  204  Illustrations. 

Text-Book  of  the  Principles  of  Machine  Work 

372  pp.,  5x8,  434  Illustrations. 

Text-Book  of  Advanced  Machine  Work 

350  pp.,  5  x  8,  400  Illustrations. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  BOOK  COMPANY 

BOSTON,   U.  S.  A. 


TEXT- BOOK  OF  TEE  ELEMENTS 

OF 

MACHINE  WORK 


PREPARED  FOR 

STUDENTS  IN  TECHNICAL,  MANUAL  TRAINING, 

AND  TRADE    SCHOOLS,  AND  FOR  THE 

APPRENTICE  IN  THE  SHOP 


LAYING    OUT    WORK,    CHIPPING,    FILING,    SCRAPING, 
HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING  CARBON  AND  HIGH- 
SPEED   STEELS,    TESTING    HARDNESS,     PIPE 
FITTING,  SOLDERING,  BRAZING,  LACING 
BELTS,  ALINING  SHAFTING,  AND 
INSTALLING  MACHINES 


ROBERT  H.  SMITH 

VI 

MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY 


204  Illustrations 


,..    FIRST  ^DJTAO 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION   BOOK   COMPANY 
BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


«** 

<?5 


COPYRIGHT,  1910, 

BY 
ROBERT  H.  SMITH. 


Stanbopc  ipress 

F.    H.   GILSON     COMPANY 
BOSTON.     U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


IN  teaching  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  etc.,  text- 
books of  classified  information  are  available  and  are  a  required 
and  necessary  part  of  class-room  and  laboratory  courses; 
thus  the  student  advances  rapidly  and  systematically,  and 
the  instructor  is  enabled  to  accomplish  effective  work. 

In  this  the  Age  of  Machinery,  students,  apprentices,  and 
machine  operators  are  handicapped  by  lack  of  text-books  of 
classified  information  of  the  art  and  science  of  machine  con- 
struction. 

The  aim  of  these  books,  —  Elements  of  Machine  Work, 
Principles  of  Machine  Work,  and  Advanced  Machine  Work 
is  to  give  the  beginner  the  advantages  of  text-books  as  in  the 
older  subjects,  that  he  may  acquire  the  fundamental  as  well 
as  advanced  principles  in  a  logical,  systematic,  and  progressive 
manner  and  in  the  shortest  time  possible. 

Machines,  mechanisms,  and  tools  are  illustrated  graphically 
by  means  of  original  perspective  and  mechanical  drawings, 
and  briefly  and  systematically  described  by  condensed  tables. 
Operations  in  machining,  standard  and  typical  problems  in 
machine  construction  are  given  in  condensed  schedules  which 
name  the  material,  operations,  machines,  speeds,  feeds,  jigs, 
fixtures,  and  tools.  Calculations  are  supplied  by  condensed 
rules  and  formulas.  Facts  and  principles  are  supplied  which 
a  student  or  apprentice  in  school  or  shop  must  rediscover  or 
obtain  from  instructor  or  foreman.  As  the  subject  is  large 
and  varied,  it  is  impossible -for  instructor  or  foreman  to  do 
justice  to  it;  consequently,  the  task  is  a  difficult  one  and 
the  beginner's  progress  extremely  slow. 

These  books  tell  how  to  do  things,  with  that  theory  which 
connects  principles  and  practice,  and  no  person  can  build  or 

v 

236396 


vi  PREFACE. 

superintend  the  construction  of  machinery  without  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  understanding  these  problems  and 
applying  these  principles. 

To  the  manufacturers,  teachers,  associates,  and  other  friends 
who  have  kindly  assisted  with  information,  help,  and  encour- 
agement, I  take  this  opportunity  of  expressing  my  indebted- 
ness and  appreciation. 

R.  H.  S. 

May,  1910. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.  PAGE 

History  and  Origin  of  Machine  Tools.  —  The  hammer,  chisel,  file, 
and  hand  drill  (primitive  tools)  —  Evolution  of  the  lathe  — 
Slide  rest;  its  application  to  the  engine  lathe  and  to  other 
machine  tools 1 

Equipment  for  Teaching  and  Manufacturing.  —  Laboratories  for 
teaching  machine  construction  —  Manufacturing  plants  or 
machine  shops  for  the  construction  of  machines  in  lots  —  Tool 
and  stock  rooms 2 

Materials  Used  for  Machine  Construction.  —  Ores  of  iron :  cast  iron, 
wrought  iron,  machine  steels  (vanadium,  nickel,  and  chrome), 
carbon  and  high-speed  steels  —  Percentage  of  carbon  in  steel 
for  various  tools  —  Hand  and  drop  forgings  —  Steel  and  malle- 
able-iron castings  —  Alloys  of  copper  —  Soft  metals 3 

Reading  Drawings.  —  Perspective,  isometric,  orthographic,  or  me- 
chanical —  Working  drawings,  assembly  and  detail  —  Tables  of 
abbreviations  on  drawings  for  information  and  operation  — 
Dimensions  on  drawings  —  Schedule-of -operations  drawings  — 
Scale  —  Blue  prints  —  Pencil  sketches  —  Order  of  reading 
working  drawings  —  Dimension-limit  system 8 

CHAPTER  II. 

Standards  of  Linear  Measurements.  —  English,  metric  —  The  British 
Imperial  yard  —  Origin  of  the  yard  and  inch  —  Table  of  Eng- 
lish Linear  Measure  —  The  meter  —  Origin  of  the  meter  — 
Table  of  Metric  Linear  Measure 16 

Measuring,  Laying  Out  and  Operating  Tools,  and  Methods  of  Use.  — 
Laying  out  work  —  Two-foot  rule  —  Standard  steel  rules  — 
Outside,  inside,  and  keyhole  calipers — Dividers  —  Trammels  — 
Standard  steel  straight  edge  —  Center  square  -^-  Key  seating 
rule  —  Scratch  and  depth  gage  —  Center  punch  —  Scriber  — 
Leveling  plate  —  Bench  and  universal  surface  gages  —  Auto- 
matic, adjustable  center  punch  —  Templets  for  producing  dupli- 
cate parts  —  Monkey,  solid,  tool-post,  socket,  and  spanner 
wrenches  —  Screw-driver,  plumb  bob,  spirit  level,  pliers,  and 
wire  cutters. .  17 


viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III.  PAGE 

Chipping:  Hand  and  Power. — The  guide  principle  in  hand  tools  — 
Types  of  chipping  hammers  —  Cold  chisels  —  Angles  of  cutting 
edges  —  Roughing  and  finishing  cuts  —  How  to  hold  the  work 
—  Correct  position  for  chipping  —  Chipping  plane  surfaces, 
with  schedule  of  operations  —  Chipping  curved  surfaces  — 
Pneumatic  chipping 29 

Tool-Grinding.  —  Wet  tool  grinder  —  Emery  wheels  —  Emory 
wheel  speeds  —  Methods  of  truing  emery  wheels  —  Hardened 
wheel  and  roll  dressers  —  Grindstone  and  truing  device  — 
Grinding  a  cold  chisel 40 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Files.  —  General  description  —  Shape,  cut,  single  cut,  double  cut, 
rasps,  Swiss  pattern  files  —  Uses  and  names  of  files  —  Safe  edge 
—  Quadrangular,  triangular,  and  circular  sections  —  Special  files : 
rifflers,  files  for  wood,  brass  and  babbitt  or  lead  —  Handles  and 
file  cleaners 46 

Hand  and  Machine  Filing.  —  Oil  in  filing  —  Pinning  —  Care  of 
files  —  Height  of  work  —  Correct  position  for  filing  —  Try 
squares  —  Testing  flatness  of  surfaces  —  Testing  squareness  of 
surfaces  —  How  to  lay  out  work  for  filing  —  Filing  and  squaring 
flat  surfaces,  with  schedule  of  operations — Filing  curved  sur- 
faces —  Draw-filing  —  Filing  machine 53 

How  Files  are  Made.  —  Hand  and  machine-cut  files. .  64 


CHAPTER  V. 

Scrapers,  Scraping  and  Standard  Surface  Plates.  —  Flat  scraper  — 
To  sharpen  flat  scraper  —  Standard  surface  plate  —  "  Marking  " 
to  indicate  the  surface  to  be  scraped  by  means  of  spots  on  work  — 
Scraping  plane  (flat)  surfaces,  with  schedule  of  operations  — 
Standard  scraped  straight  edge  —  Scraping  V-ways  of  machines 
—  Originating  standards  —  To  scrape  without  a  standard  — 
"Bedding  "  to  mark  work  for  scraping  or  filing,  as  pillow  blocks, 
etc.  —  Scraping  bronze  or  babbitt  bearings 66 

Polishing.  — Abrasives  for  polishing  and  grinding:  emery,  corundum, 
alundum,  carborundum,  rottenstone,  crocus,  etc.  —  Number 
and  grade  of  emery  —  Polishing  —  Order  of  applying  different 
grades  of  emery  cloth  —  Emery  paper  and  grain  emery  —  Polish- 
ing flat  surfaces  —  Polishing  curved  surfaces 71 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAPTER  VI.  PAGE 

Annealing,  Hardening,  and  Tempering  Carbon  Steel.  —  Water  an- 
nealing, commercial  annealing  —  Annealing  cast  iron,  copper, 
bronze,  and  brass  —  Hardening  —  File  test  for  hardness  — 
Tempering  —  Color,  thermometer,  and  file  test  —  Forge  fire, 
muffle  gas  furnaces,  lead  furnace,  electric  furnace  —  Cooling 
baths:  brine,  water,  oil,  mercury  —  Cleansing  baths — Anneal- 
ing, hardening,  and  tempering  unfinished  tools  —  Hardening  and 
tempering  cold  chisels  and  lathe  tools  —  Hardening  and  temper- 
ing springs  —  Oil-tempering  furnace  —  Hardening  and  tempering 
finished  tools,  such  as  tap,  mandrel,  and  milling  cutter  —  To 
harden  and  not  temper  —  Tempering  table  with  degrees  of  heat 
to  which  colors  correspond 75 

High-Speed  Steel.  —  Heating,  forging,  hardening,  and  tempering 
high-speed  lathe  tools  —  Hardening  and  tempering  high-speed 
steel  cutters  —  Heating  in  barium  chloride  and  tempering  in  oil  90 

Case-Hardening.  —  To  case-harden  with  cyanide  of  potassium  — 
Case-hardening  with  and  without  colors,  box  and  bone  pro- 
cess —  Case-hardening  with  carbonizing  gas  —  Annealing  and 
rehardening  case-hardened  work 94 

Straightening  Hardened  and  Tempered  Tools 97 

Testing  Hardness  with  Scleroscope.  —  Principle  of  the  scleroscope 

and  scale  of  hardness 9 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Cutting  off  Stock,  Hand  and  Machine  Methods.  —  Hand  saws  and 
cutting-off  machines  —  Hand  hack  saw  and  method  of  use  — 
Power  hack  saw  and  method  of  use  —  Power  rotary  cutting- 
off  machine  and  method  of  operating  —  Cold  saw  cutting-off 
machine  and  its  use 102 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Pipe  and  Pipe  Fittings.  —  Steel  and  wrought-iron  pipe  —  Galvanized 
pipe  and  fittings  —  Lead  and  tin-lined  pipe  and  fittings — ^Elec- 
tric conduits  or  tubes  —  Right  and  left  pipe  fittings  —  Lubri- 
cants for  cutting  off  and  threading  pipe  —  Pipe-joint  cement  — 
Brass,  copper,  and  bronze  pipe  and  tubes  —  Plumbers'  sizes  or 
fine  thread  pipes  and  fittings  —  Seamless  tubing  —  Nickel- 
plated  tubes  —  Cast-iron  pipe  —  Drain  pipe  —  Lead  or  block- 
tin  pipe  —  Aluminium  pipe  and  fittings  —  Packings  —  Steel 
and  nickel  tubes  —  Tables  of  pipe  measurements  —  Colors  to 
identify  pipe  lines  —  Charts  of  pipe  fittings,  valves,  cocks,  gas, 
railings,  and  driven  well  fittings,  with  tables  of  names  and 
uses. .  , 106 


x  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Pipe  Tools.  —  Charts  of  pipe  tools  for  use  on  iron  pipe,  plumbers' 

pipe,  nickel-plated  tubing,  with  tables  of  names 126 

Hand  and  Machine  Methods  of  Piping.  —  Hand  method  of  thread- 
ing —  Cutting  off  and  making  up  pipe  joints,  with  schedule 
of  operations  —  Pipe  fitting,  with  schedule  of  operations  — 
Making  both  right  and  left  connections  —  Threading  pipe  with 
hand  threading  machine  —  Threading  large  pipe  with  power 
threading  machine  —  Making  up  large  pipe  joint  by  power.  ...  132 

CHAPTER   IX. 

Straightening  and  Bending.  —  Straightening  flat  or  round  stock  on 

anvil  —  Straightening  shaft  in  lathe  and  in  straightening  press  141 

Peening  and  Riveting.  —  Straightening  or  stretching  metal  by 

peening. — Riveting  flush  joints  and  crankshaft  pin 142 

Hand  Drilling.  — Breast  and  ratchet  drills,  and  method  of  use 144 

CHAPTER  X. 

Soldering.  —  Soft  solder  —  Fluxes  for  soldering  —  Soldering-iron  — 

Problem  in  soft  soldering,  with  schedule  of  operations 146 

Brazing.  —  Brazing  or  hard  solder  (spelter)  —  Fluxes  for  brazing  — 
Brazing  with  hand  blow-pipe,  with  schedule  of  operations  — 
Brazing  with  large  stationary  blow-pipe  —  Brazing  cast  iron, 
with  schedule  of  operations — Brazing  small  work  with  jewelers' 
blow-pipe 148 

Babbitting.  —  Babbitting  bearings,  with  schedule  of  operations 151 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Power  Transmission.  —  Shafting,  pulleys,  belts,  gears  —  Power  for 
driving  machine  tools  —  Shafting  —  Formulas  for  calculating 
speeds  of  shafts  —  Pulleys :  solid  and  split,  crown  and  straight 
face  —  Formulas  for  calculating  diameters  of  pulleys  —  Belts, 
etc.  —  Belting  —  Open  belts  and  cross  belts  —  Formulas 
for  calculating  lengths  of  belts  —  To  aline  pulleys  for  quarter- 
turn  belts  —  Joining  ends  of  belts  —  Lacing  belts,  with  schedule 
of  operations  —  Belt  clamps  —  Coil  wire  lacing  —  Belt  hooks 
and  metal  fastening  —  Cementing  or  gluing  endless  belts  — 
Method  of  using  speed  indicator,  with  schedule  of  operations  — 
Gear  transmission  —  Pair  and  train  of  gears  —  To  calculate 
speed  of  gears  —  Balancing  pulleys 153 

Alining  and  Leveling  Shafting  and  Installing  Machines.  —  Erection 
of  hangers  on  main  line  shaft,  line  and  level  method,  schedule 
of  operations  —  Transit  method  and  schedule  of  operations  — 
To  erect  countershaft  or  shaft  parallel  to  the  main  line  —  In- 
stalling machine  tools 166 


CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAPTER  XII.  PAGE 

Tables  and  Other  Data  Used  in  Machine  Work.  —  Etching  names 
and  figures  on  hardened  steel  —  Bluing  steel  and  iron  —  Brown- 
ing steel  and  iron  —  Repairing  rust  holes  and  splits  in  pipes  — 
Case-hardening  cast  iron  —  Table  of  inches  with  equivalents  in 
millimeters  —  Table  of  millimeters  with  equivalents  in  inches  — 
Table  of  freezing,  melting,  and  boiling  temperatures  of  metals 
and  common  substances  —  Cleaning  castings  —  Tumbling  bar- 
rels —  Sand  blast  —  Pickling 171 

Index . .  179 


ELEMENTS   OF    MACHINE 
WORK. 


CHAPTER  I. 

» 

HISTORY  AND  ORIGIN  OF  MACHINE  TOOLS.    EQUIPMENT  FOR 

TEACHING  AND  MANUFACTURING.    MATERIALS  USED   FOR 

MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION.    READING  DRAWINGS. 

HISTORY  AND   ORIGIN   OF  MACHINE  TOOLS. 

1.  Simple  tools. — The  hammer,  cold  chisel,  file,  and  hand 
drill  are  the  simple  tools  of  machine  construction,  and  are 
operated  by  hand. 

Primitive  tools.  —  To  the  hand  drill  belongs  the  distinction 
of  being  the  first  machine  with  revolving  parts  used  by 
primitive  man.  Machine  tools,  as  the  lathe,  planer,  milling 
and  drilling  machines,  etc.,  operate  cutting  tools  by  power. 

2.  Evolution  of  the  lathe.  — The  lathe  is  the  most  general 
and  useful  of  all  machine  tools  and  is  used  to  produce  cylin- 
drical surfaces. 

The  date  of  its  origin  is  lost  in  antiquity.  The  first  lathes 
consisted  of  two  short  posts  driven  into  the  ground,  and  a  nail 
driven  into  each  formed  the  centers  on  which  the  work  re- 
volved, operated  by  a  rope,  treadle  and  sapling,  or  lath,  and 
from  the  latter  name  the  term  lathe  is  derived. 

To  Henry  Maudslay  of  England,  belongs  the  credit  of 
inventing  the  slide  rest  and  applying  it  to  the  lathe  about 
1794;  and  later,  to  other  machines.  Planing  machines  came 
next,  and  did  for  plane  surfaces  what  the  lathe  had  done  for 
cylindrical  surfaces.  Then  followed  milling  machines,  grind- 

l 


£ ,  'OF,  MACHINE  WORK. 

ing  machines,  screw  machines,  gear  cutters,  etc.  The  im- 
provements in  machine  tools  during  the  past  fifty  years  have 
been  greater  than  in  all  the  preceding  years. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  TEACHING  AND  MANUFACTURING. 

3.  Machine  laboratories  for  teaching  the  principles  of  ma- 
chine  construction   should   be   equipped   with   the   following 
classes  of  machine  tools:  hand  and  engine  lathes,  planing, 
shaping,  milling,  grinding,  slotting,  drilling,  cutting-off,  screw 
and  turret  machines.     To    properly    equip    and    use    these 
machine  tools  requires  a  great  variety  of  small  tools,  lathe, 
planer  and  shaper  tools,  milling  cutters,  drills,  reamers,  taps, 
dies,  rules,  calipers,  dividers,  chucks,  surface  gages,  cylindri- 
cal   gages,   templets,    jigs,    hammers,    chisels,    files,    center 
punches,  scratch  awls,  gravers,  a  variety  of  small  hand  turning 
tools,  etc.,  and  to  grind  tools  properly  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  water  emery  tool  grinder,  a  grindstone,  a  cutter  grinder,  and 
a  twist  drill  grinder. 

4.  Machine  manufacturing  plants  or  shops.  —  A  plant  for 
the  construction  of  machines  in  lots  comprises  several  depart- 
ments.    Each  is  fitted  with  regulation  machine  tools,   and 
also  many  special   machines,  jigs,  fixtures,  and  various  small 
tools  for  the  duplication  of  the  various  parts,  the  equipment 
differing  with  the  class   of  machines  built.     Likewise  there 
are  departments  for  pattern  making,  forging,  hardening,  and 
tempering,  and  foundries  for  producing  castings.     Separate 
and  specially  equipped  departments  are  also  maintained  for 
designing,   draughting,   inspecting,   testing,  painting,  storing, 
shipping,   and  a  machine  shop  for  repairing  machines  and 
tools. 

5.  Tool  and  stock  rooms  are  necessary  for  teaching  or  manu- 
facturing tools  and  to  provide  for  a  proper  storage  of  small 
tools;  also  a  check  system  for  the  intelligent  distribution  and 
accounting  of  tools,  and  such  machinery  as  will  be  necessary 
to  keep  these  tools  in  good  repair,  and  a  storeroom  for  materials 
and  supplies. 


MATERIALS  3 

MATERIALS  USED  FOR  MACHINE  CONSTRUCTION. 

6.  Materials  for  machines  and  tools  are  principally  cast 
iron,  steel,  wrought  iron,  and  alloys  of  copper.     Such  sub- 
stances as  slate,  glass,  carbon,  porcelain,  and  mica  are  largely 
used  in  the  construction  of  electrical  apparatus  and  machinery. 

The  base  for  all  steel  and  iron  products  is  "  pig  "  iron, 
obtained  directly  from  the  ore. 

7.  Ores  of  iron  are  magnetite  72.4%,  hematite  70%,  limo- 
nite  60%  iron.     The  blast-furnace  process  produces  pig  iron 
from  which  the  earthy  impurities  of  the  ore  have  been  removed; 
but  pig  contains  carbon,  silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and 
perhaps  other  elements.     In  the  foundry,  pig  is  recast  into 
cast   iron.      In   the   puddling  process,    blast-furnace   pig  is 
made  into  wrought  iron  by  burning  out  practically  all  the 
impurities.     In  the  Bessemer  converter  and  in  the  open-hearth 
furnace,  machine  steel  is  made  from  blast-furnace  pig,  utiliz- 
ing also  wrought-iron  and  steel  scrap.      In  the  crucible  pro- 
cess wrought  iron  or  machine  steel  are  made  into  carbon  or 
tool  steel  and  high-speed  steel. 

8.  Cast  iron  contains  2.3%  or  more  of  carbon  and  is  made 
by  remelting  pig  and  scrap  cast  iron  (broken  or  old  castings). 
It  is  not  malleable  or  ductile  like  wrought  iron,  nor  can  it 
be  hardened  and  tempered,  yet  it  may  be  chilled  to  make 
it  very  hard.     When  fractured  it  shows  a  crystalline  surface 
similar  to  granite.     It  is  molded  into  castings  of  any  form, 
and  is  used  where  weight  or  mass  is   more  important  than 
strength,  as  in  frames  of  machines.      The   strength  of  iron 
castings  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  vanadium. 

9.  Wrought  iron,  commercially  pure  iron,  is  made  by  burn- 
ing out  the  carbon  and  other  impurities  from  pig  iron.     The 
iron  is  left  in  a  pasty  mass  which  is  refined  by  rolling  and 
hammering.     When  broken  it  has  a  fibrous  appearance  re- 
sembling wood.     It  is  soft,  tenacious,  malleable,  and  ductile. 
It  can  be  welded  and  forged,  but  not  molded  like  cast  iron.    It 
cannot  be  hardened  and  tempered  but  may  be  case-hardened. 

Wrought  iron  is  used  in  machine  construction  in  the  form 
of  bars,  shafting,  finished  rods,  wire,  sheets,  forgings,  etc. 


4  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 

10.  Steel.  —  The  term  steel  is  indefinite  unless  qualified. 
Steel  containing  less  than  0.5%  of  carbon  is  called  machine 
steel;  that  containing  from  0.5%  to  1.5%  of  carbon  is  called 
carbon  or  tool  steel. 

11.  Machine  steel  is   made  by  taking  carbon  and  other 
impurities  from  pig  iron  by  means  of  the  Bessemer  converter 
or  the  open-hearth  furnace.     Large  quantities  of  all  kinds  of 
scrap    are   also    worked   up   into   steel    by   these   processes. 
Machine  steel  covers  all  kinds  of  steel  between  wrought  iron 
and  carbon  steel.     It  is  obtainable  in  same  form  as  wrought 
iron.      Both  steel   and  wrought  iron  are  often  galvanized  to 
prevent  rusting. 

12.  Carbon  or  tool  steel  is   made   by   adding  carbon  to 
wrought  iron  or  to  machine  steel  by  the   crucible   melting 
process.     It  is  used  for  fine-edge  cutting  tools  that  must  be 
hardened  and  tempered,  such  as  taps,  dies,  reamers,  drills, 
lathe  and  planer  tools,  etc.     See  High-speed  Steel,  §  229. 

It  is  difficult  to  weld  carbon  steel  to  carbon  steel,  but  it  may 
be  welded  to  machine  steel  or  wrought  iron.  It  is  obtainable 
in  bars,  disks,  wire,  sheets,  etc.,  annealed  or  unannealed. 

The  quantity  and  condition  of  associated  carbon  make  the 
distinction  between  iron  and  steel.  The  distinction  between 
the  different  grades  of  steel  is  due  more  to  the  variation  of 
carbon  content  than  to  differences  in  other  elements. 

13.  Carbon  or  temper  in  steel  is  designated  in  one-hun- 
dredths  of  one  per  cent;  thus  25-point  carbon  means  25  hun- 
dredths  of  one  per  cent  carbon. 

50  to  60  point  carbon  is  best  for  hot  working. 

60  to  70  point  carbon  for  tools  of  dull  edge. 

70  to  80  point  carbon  for  cold  sets  and  similar  tools. 

80  to  100  point  carbon  for  chipping  chisels,  drills,  knives, 
center  punches. 

100  to  110  point  carbon  for  large  lathe  tools,  dies,  punches, 
drills. 

110  to  150  point  carbon  for  lathe  tools,  scrapers,  reamers, 
and  all  tools  requiring  a  very  fine  cutting  edge. 

A  practical  test  to   distinguish   carbon  steel  from   good 


MATERIALS.  5 

machine  steel  is  to  heat  it  to  a  light  red  and  cool  in  water. 
If  it  becomes  glass  hard,  as  indicated  by  file  test,  it  is  tool 
steel;  if  only  partially  hardened,  it  is  machine  steel. 

14.  Vanadium,  nickel,  and    chrome   alloy  steels  give   the 
greatest  strength  with  the  least  weight  and  are  used  for  moving 
machine  parts  that  are  subject  to  severe  strains  or  sudden 
shocks.    Vanadium-chrome  steel  in  high  and  low  carbon  grades, 
is  used  for  automobile  parts.     It  forges  and  machines  more 
readily  than  nickel-chrome  steels. 

Nickel-chrome  steel  is  made  in  high  and  low  carbon  grades 
and  used  for  gears,  springs,  and  general  structural  work. 

Nickel-steel  is  used  for  shafting,  rods,  bolts,  etc.,  of  marine 
engines,  and  light  plate  work. 

15.  Hand  and  drop  forgings  are  made  when  shapes  are 
desired  which  are  not  readily  machined  from  the  bar.     In 
manufacturing  a  large  number  of  pieces  of  the  same  shape 
they  are  uniformly  and  economically  produced  in  dies  under  a 
drop  hammer.     Drop  forgings  are  also  obtainable  in  copper 
and  bronze. 

16.  Steel  castings.  —  The  molten  product  of  Bessemer  con- 
verter or  open-hearth   furnace  may  be  run  into  molds  and 
form  steel  castings  in  the  same  way  as  iron  castings.     They 
must  be  annealed.     Vanadium  steel,  nickel  steel,  manganese 
steel,   and  chrome  steel  castings   are  used  to  resist  severe 
stress  and  wear  and  where  hard,  reliable,  and  strong  castings 
are  desired. 

The  strength  of  steel  castings  is  increased  by  the  addition  of 
vanadium. 

17.  Malleable -iron  castings  are  made  by  annealing  special 
iron  castings  by  packing  them  in  a  box  with  oxide  of  iron  and 
maintaining  at  a  red  heat  in  an  oven  from  three  to  six  days, 
then  cooling  slowly.     They  can  be  case-hardened. 

18.  Cold-rolled  steel  and  wrought  iron.  —  Open-hearth  steel 
of  low  carbon  and  wrought  iron  are  obtainable  cold  rolled  in 
shafts,  rods,  plates,  etc.,  with  smooth,  bright  surfaces,  in  accu- 
rate  sizes.     Each  is    used  without  further  preparation  for 
shafting,  piston  rods,  pump   rods,  engine  guides,  etc.      The 


6  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 

process  of  cold  rolling  greatly  improves  the  physical  prop- 
erties of  steel  andiron;  it  increases  the  tenacity  and  elevates 
the  elastic  limit  under  tensile  and  transverse  stresses. 

19.  Cold-drawn  steel  and  wrought  iron  in  bars,  rods,  and 
wire,  round,   square,  hexagonal,  etc.,  are  used  as  stock  for 
screw  machines  and  turret  lathes,  for   making  screws,  bolts, 
studs,  shafting  keys,  etc.     Steel  wire  is  cold  drawn  through 
diamond  dies  as  small  as  .003"  in  diameter. 

20.  Finished    Bessemer  steel   rods  and    wire,   finished   to 
accurate  sizes  to  fractional  parts  of  an  inch  or  to  wire  gage, 
are  obtainable  in  various   cross-sections.     They  are   copper- 
coated  to  prevent  corrosion. 

21.  Carbon  or  tool-steel  rods  and  wire,  cold  drawn,  finished 
to  accurate  sizes  are  obtainable  for  small  tools. 

22.  Music  (piano)  wire,  cold  drawn  is  obtainable  finished 
in  sizes  according  to  different  music  wire  gages,  or  in  thou- 
sandths of  an  inch.      It  has  a  spring  temper,  is  very  resilient 
and  largely  used  for  springs  and  various  mechanical  devices; 
it  can  be  hardened  and  tempered. 

23.  Copper.  —  Is  a  red  metal  and  the  most  ancient  known. 
It  can  be  cast,  rolled,  forged,  and  machined.     It  is  very  malle- 
able and  ductile,  and  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  electric- 
ity.   It  is  used  either  alone  or  alloyed  with  other  metals  to 
form    brass,   bronze,    composition,  etc.     It  is  hardened  by 
rolling  or  hammering. 

24.  Alloys  (composition) . —  The  chief  ingredients  of  copper 
alloys  are  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  with  small  percentages  of 
other  metals.      In  general,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  is 
brass;  copper  and  tin,  bronze;  and  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  com- 
position metal  also  bronze. 

25.  Brass  is  composed  of  about  70%  copper  and  30%  zinc 
(spelter).     Rich  gold  metal  for  electrical  apparatus  is  made 
of  90%  copper  and  10%  zinc.     Brass  is  readily  machined.    It 
can  be  made  harder  by  the  addition  of  two  or  three  per  cent 
of  tin,  or  more  malleable  by  the  same  proportion  of  lead;  tin 
whitens  it,  lead  reddens  it.     Brass  is  used  in  machine  con- 
struction in  the  form  of  castings,  rods,  sheets,  tubing,  and  wire. 


MATERIALS  7 

Brass   and  copper  wire  are  obtainable  as   fine   as   .002"  in 
diameter. 

26.  Bronze  is  tough  and  durable  and  is  used  in  the  form 
of  castings  for  bearings  and  parts  of  engines  and  machinery 
subject  to  shock,  great  strain   and  wear.     It  is  also  used  for 
bells,  telescopes,  ordnance,  screw  propellers,  ornaments,  etc. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  bronzes:  phosphor  bronze,  Tobin 
bronze,  manganese  bronze,  aluminium  bronze,  etc. 

Bronze  for  bearings  in  machines  and  small  engines  is  com- 
posed of  about  85%  copper,  13%  tin,  and  2%  zinc.  Gun 
metal  is  variously  composed  of  from  90%  to  95%  copper  with 
from  5%  to  10%  of  tin. 

27.  Phosphor  bronze  is  an  alloy  of  phosphorus,  tin,  and 
copper.     It  is  very  tough  and  will  stand  great  wear.     Many 
spiral  and  worm  gears  are  of  phosphor  bronze. 

28.  Manganese  bronze  is  an  alloy  of  manganese  and  cop- 
per.  As  it  does  not  corrode  easily,  it  is  much  used  for  propeller 
wheels. 

29.  Aluminium  bronze  is  an  alloy  of  aluminium  and  copper. 
An  alloy  of  from  5%  to  12%  aluminium  with  95%  to  88% 
copper  is  very  strong,  elastic,  and  ductile.     It  can  be  ham- 
mered, rolled, and  forged  at  a  red  heat,  and  is  in  many  ways 
similar  to  mild  steel.     It  is  practically  non-corrosive. 

30.  Babbitt  metal  is  a  soft  white  alloy  of  very  variable 
composition,  as  eight  parts  tin  to  one  copper  and  one  anti- 
mony; nine  parts  tin,  one  copper,  etc.     It  is  used  to  line 
boxes  for  bearings  to  reduce  friction  in  all  kinds  of  machinery. 
See  §  327. 

31.  Lead  is  a  very  malleable  metal,  of  a  bluish  gray  color, 
and  is  obtainable  in  sheets,  pipes,  and  blocks. 

32.  Tin  is  a  highly  malleable  metal  resembling  silver,  largely 
used  in  coating  sheet  iron,  and  with  copper  to  form  alloys. 

33.  Zinc  is  a  whitish,  brittle  metal  much  used  in  combi- 
nation with  copper  to  form  alloys,  and  for  galvanizing. 

34.  Aluminium  is  a  light  bluish  white,  soft,  malleable  metal 
of  extreme  lightness  and  brilliant  luster.      It  does  not  corrode ; 
can  be  soldered,  forged  or  rolled  hot  or  cold,  and  machined  and 


8  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 

annealed  by  bringing  to  a  dull  red  heat  and  cooling  slowly. 
It  shrinks  greatly  in  casting.  It  is  used  for  gear  cases  for 
automobiles,  parts  of  mathematical  instruments,  and  alloyed 
with  copper  for  journal  bearings. 

35.  Vanadium.  —  A  silver-white  primary  metallic  element 
which  has  wrought  wonders  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  iron, 
copper,  brass,  aluminium,  and  lead.     A  small  amount  of  vana- 
dium alloyed  with  any  of  these  metals  has  the  triple  effect  of 
cleansing,  strengthening  and  toughening  the  material. 

36.  Platinum  is  a  very  rare  metal  and  very  ductile.     It  is 
used  for  connecting  filaments  in  incandescent  lamps,  spark- 
ing devices  for  gas  engines,  etc. 

37.  Wood  is  used  considerably  in  the  construction  of  some 
classes  of  machinery,  for  tables,  frames,  etc. 

READING  DRAWINGS. 

38.  Drawing  is  a  universal  language,  a  scientific  method 
of  communication  between  designers,  draughtsmen,  and  con- 
structors.    One  should  learn  to  make  mechanical  drawings 
and  to  read  them  just  as  he  does  printed  matter. 

The  principles  and  conventions  used  in  drawing,  with 
special  reference  to  those  known  as  working  drawings,  are 
here  given. 

Methods  of  representing  objects.  —  There  are  three  general 
methods,  the  perspective,  isometric,  and  projection  drawing. 


FIG.  1.  —  PERSPECTIVE  DRAW-  FIG.  2.  —  ISOMETRIC  DRAWING 

ING  OF  BRICK.  or  BRICK. 

39.   Perspective  drawing  is  the  method  of  representing  an 
object  as  it  appears  to  the  eye,  as  the  brick  in  Fig.  1. 
This  method  is  used  for  rough  sketches. 


DRAWINGS. 


40.  Isometric  drawing  is  a  method  of  showing  an  object 
pictorially  and  still  have  the  lines  show  the  true  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness,  as  the  brick  in  Fig.  2. 

The  lines  which  represent  length  and  breadth  make  angles 
of  30°  with  the  horizontal,  and  for  thickness  are  vertical  (90°). 
This  method  is  used  in  construction  work  for  simple  objects. 
Paper  ruled  for  isometric  drawings  is  obtainable. 

41.  Mechanical  drawing  or  orthographic  projection.  —  Any 
drawing  made  with  instruments  is  a  mechanical  drawing. 
Established,  practice,   however,  has  restricted  the  term  to 
drawings  made  up  of  geometric  views. 

Fig.  3  is  a  mechanical  drawing  of  the  briek  in  Figs.  1  and  2. 
Two  views  at  least  are  necessary  —  the  top  view  or  plan, 


TOP  VIEW 

OR 
PLAN 


END 
VIEW 


SIDE    VIEW 

OR 
ELEVATION 


FIG.  3.  —  MECHANICAL  DBA  WING  OF  A  BRICK. 

obtained  by  looking  vertically  down  upon  the  brick;  and  the 
other,  the  side  view  or  elevation,  obtained  by  looking  hori- 
zontally at  the  brick;  a  third  or  end  view  is  sometimes 
needed. 

42.  Working  drawings  (assembly  and  detail)  are  mechanical 
drawings  supplied  with  dimensions  and  other  information  that 
would  be  necessary  in  order  to  construct  the  piece. 

Assembly  drawings  show  the  relation  of  the  various  parts 
when  in  place.  If  any  dimensions  are  given,  they  are  usually 
those  necessary  in  assembling. 

Detail  drawings  show  each  part  separately.  They  are 
supplied  with  complete  dimensions,  have  stated  the  ma- 
terial, number  of  pieces  required,  kinds  of  operations  to  be 
performed,  and  all  other  information  necessary  to  construct 
the  work. 


10  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 

43.   Lines  used  on  drawings.  —  See  Fig.  4  for  explanation. 


FULL  LINE 

FOR  VISIBLE  PARTS 


DOTTED  OR  DASH  LINE 

FOR  INVISIBLE  PARTS  AND  TO  CONNECT  DIMENSION  LINES  WITH  VIEWS 


CENTER  LINE 


DIMENSION  LINE 


SHADE  LINE 


FlG.  4. 


Full  lines  and  dotted  lines.  —  Full  lines  are  used  to  show 
visible  parts  of  the  object  and  dotted  lines  the  invisible  parts, 
as  in  Fig.  5. 


FIG. 5.  —  HOLLOW  CYLINDERS,  SHOWING 
USE  or  FULL  LINE  AND  DOTTED  LINE. 


SECTION    ON 
LINE  A  B 

FIG.  6.  —  SLEEVE  FITTED  TO 
HOLLOW  CYLINDER,  SHOW- 
ING USE  OF  SECTION  LINING. 


Sections  are  used  to  show  the  shape  of  a  piece  or  to  reveal 
hidden  parts.  They  show  the  piece  as  if  it  were  cut  or  sawed 
open.  The  position  of  a  section  is  represented  by  a  center 
line  usually  marked  with  two  letters,  and  the  section  is  marked 
with  the  corresponding  letters  as  in  Fig.  6. 


DRAWINGS. 


11 


Sections  and  partial  sections  are  often  shown  upon  the 
piece  itself. 

Section  lining  ("  Cross  hatching"). — Parallel,  equidis- 
tant lines,  usually  inclined  at  an  angle  of  60°or  45°,  represent 
cut  surfaces  or  sections. 

When  two  or  more  pieces  are  in  contact  and  represented  by 
a  cut  surface  or  section,  it  is  customary  to  draw  the  section 
lines  in  different  directions  to  show  more  clearly  the  separation 
between  the  parts,  as  in  Fig.  6,  a  sleeve  fitted  into  a  hollow 
cylinder. 


CAST    IRON.          W.  IRON.  STEEL 


BRASS. 


BABBITT 
OR   LEAD. 


WOOD. 


FIG.  7.  —  SECTION  LINING  TO  REPRESENT  MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

Section  lining  to  show  different  materials  of  construction  is 

varied.     The  system  in  Fig.  7  is  much  used. 

It  is  the  practice  of  some  to  section  all  materials  alike  and 
name  the  materials  in  print  on  the  drawing. 


FIG.  8.  —  CRANK  SHAFT,  SHOWING  DIMENSIONS,  LINES,  AND  CONVENTIONS. 

44.   Breaks  on  drawings.  —  To  save  space,  Fig.  8,  parts  are 
sometimes  shown  shortened,  a  break  indicating  that  a  portion 


12 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


is  omitted,  while  the  dimension  figures  show  the  true  length. 
Breaks  are  sometimes  sectioned  to  indicate  the  material  and 
are  also  sometimes  omitted. 

A  break  in  wood  is  usually  represented  as  in  Fig.  9. 


FIG.  9.  —  BREAK  IN  WOOD. 

45.  Center  lines  on  drawings  indicate  the  starting  point  for 
all  laying  out  as  in  Fig.  8. 

Extension  lines  connect  dimension  lines  with  views  as  in 
Fig.  8. 

TABLE   OF  ABBREVIATIONS   OF   INFORMATION  ON 
DRAWINGS. 


Abbreviations. 

Names. 

Abbreviations  . 

Names. 

, 

Feet. 

R  

Right  thread. 

H 

Inches 

L 

Left  thread 

MM 

Millimeter 

Wrt   Iron  or  W   I 

Wrought  Iron 

M 

Meter 

Cst   Iron  or  C   I 

Cast  Iron 

Dia.  or  D 

Diameter 

M  S 

Machine  steel 

Rad.  or  R. 

Radius 

C  S 

Carbon  steel 

Ih.  or  thd  

Thread. 

H.  S.  S  

High-speed  steel. 

TABLE  OF  ABBREVIATIONS  OF  OPERATIONS  ON  DRAWINGS. 


Tap 

To  tap  hole 

Tool  finish 

To   be   left   as 

Ream 

To  ream  hole 

machined 

Bore     .... 

To  bore  hole. 

*f  on  line   of  sur- 

Surface     to     be 

Face  

To  face  surface 

Jr  face  Fig  8 

finished. 

Scrape  

To   scrape    sur- 

Running fit 

File  

face. 
To  file  surface. 

Driving  fit  
Forcing  fit       

Allowance      for 
fits     signified 

Grind  

To  grind. 

Shrinking  fit   

by    name    or 

Black 

To   be   left   as 

Taper  fit   etc 

number. 

forged. 

DRAWINGS.  13 

46.  Dimensions  on  drawings  should  be  so  placed  and  selected 
as  to  limit  operations,  and  should  read  from  the  bottom  or 
right  side  of  the  sheet,   Fig.  8.     The  short  dimensions  are 
arranged  nearest  the  object  and  the  over-all  dimension  at  the 
outside.     All   dimensions   up   to   and   including  twenty-four 
inches  are  given  in  inches.     All  above  are  given  in  feet  and 
inches,  with  the  exception  of  diameters,  as  of  pulleys,  fly- 
wheels, gear,  etc.,  which  run  to  one  hundred  and  forty-four 
inches  in  inches. 

When  the  dimensions  are  in  the  Metric  system,  they  are 
given  in  millimeters,  except  very  large  sizes,  which  are  given 
in  meters  and  millimeters. 

Horizontal  dimensions.  —  A  method  of  dimensioning  draw- 
ings where  all  dimensions  read  from  left  to  right,  Fig.  12. 

47.  A  schedule-of-operations  drawing  gives,  besides   usual 
amount  of  information,  the  number  and  order  of  operations 
and  also  special  fixtures,  jigs,  and  tools.     A  small  circle  (O) 
before  the  number  of  each  operation  may  be  used  to  indicate 
that  the  piece  is  to  be  inspected  for  accuracy  before  the  next 
operation. 

48.  Scale   of  drawing.  —  Drawings   are   made   to   various 
scales  as  full,  half  (6"  =  1'),  or  quarter  size  (3"  =  I7),  etc., 
according  to  size  of  object  and  available  space.     The  dimen- 
sions are  always  full  size  and  must  be  adhered  to  in  making 
the  work.     The  drawing  should  never  be  measured  to  find  a 
dimension. 

49.  Blue  prints  are  made  by  placing  chemically  prepared 
paper  under  a  transparent   cloth  or  paper  tracing  of  the 
original  drawing  (or  under  the  original  drawing  itself,  if  it  be 
made  on  special  paper)  in  a  suitable  frame,  and  exposing  the 
whole  to  the  sunlight,  after  which  the  sensitized  paper  is 
washed  in  a  tank  of  clean  water  and  hung  up  to  dry.     The 
lines  on  the  original  drawing  become  white  lines  on  blue  paper, 
"  blue  print."     Blue-printing  machines  are  obtainable. 

60.  Pencil  sketches.  —  To  avoid  delay  and  save  expense, 
freehand  pencil  sketches,  Figs.  10,  11,  are  often  used  when  one 


14 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE   WORK. 


piece  is  required.  They  are  also  used  between  the  designer 
and  draughtsman  and  by  the  draughtsman  when  making  new 
parts  or  alterations  on  machines. 


FIG.  10.  —  FREEHAND  SKETCH  OF  ROUGH  BOLT. 


FIG.  11.  —  FREEHAND  SKETCH  OF  SPUR  GEAR. 

61.  Order  of  reading  working  drawings.  —  First,  form  a 
mental  picture  of  assembled  parts,  then  the  details. 

Second,  observe  dimensions,  checking  sum  of  small  dimen- 
sions with  over-all  dimensions. 

Third,  note  material  and  number  of  each  part  to  be  made. 

Fourth,  read  all  abbreviations  and  data  given. 


DRAWINGS. 


15 


DIMENSION-LIMIT  SYSTEM. 

52.  Drawings  giving  dimension  limits  and  indicating  the 
measuring  tools  are  given  for  accurate  work,  the  systems 
varying. 

Certain  dimensions  may  be  ToW"  or  To2oo"  under  or  over 
nominal  size,  and  if  indicated  on  the  drawing  it  will  save  the 
time  used  in  finishing  work  with  undue  accuracy.  The  extra 
time  taken  to  make  the  drawings  is  saved  many  times  in 
machining  the  work. 


jj_     ,    3"          y.                                               4.501 

3"    J 

4.499 

*         16   J.JKEY 

T" 

N                   / 

"T 

1.378" 

FORCING 

RUNNING 

1.499" 

FORCING 

1.378" 

1.377" 

FIT 

FIT 

1.498" 

FIT 

1.377" 

1 

_i 

SHAFT— MACHINE    STEEL 

FIG.  12.  —  DRAWING  SHOWING  DIMENSION-LIMIT  SYSTEM. 

53.  A    single    dimension   indicated   by   a   whole   number, 
fraction,  or  mixed  number  as  6f  ",  Fig.  12,  means  that  rule  and 
caliper  are  sufficiently  accurate  to  measure  the  parts. 

54.  Double  dimensions  in  decimal  form,  placed  one  above 
the  other  as  J'gyy'/'  Fig.  12,  indicate  the  limit  allowed  for  a 
required  size,  and   that   micrometer,   vernier,   or   limit   gage 
should  be  used. 

55.  A  dimension  allowing  no  limit  is  indicated  by  a  single 
decimal  as  8.000"  and  means  that  the  greatest  possible  accu- 
racy must  be  obtained  with  the  measuring  instruments  at 
hand. 

Instead  of  double  dimensions,  limits  are  sometimes  indi- 
cated by  plus  and  minus  signs  after  the  nominal  dimensions, 
as  4.125"  +  or  -  .001". 


CHAPTER    II. 

STANDARDS  OF  LINEAR  MEASUREMENTS.    MEASURING, 

LAYING  OUT  AND  OPERATING  TOOLS,  AND 

METHODS  OF  USE. 

STANDARDS  OF  LINEAR  MEASUREMENTS. 

56.  The  English  system  expressed  in  inches,  feet,  yards,  etc. 
(see  Table),  is  used  throughout   English-speaking  countries. 
It  is  based  on  the  British  Imperial  yard,  the  distance  between 
two  fine  lines  on  gold  plugs  inserted  in  a  bronze  bar  and 
standard  at  62°  F.     The  original  bar  is  kept  in  London,  Eng- 
land, with  copies  in  the  United  States  (Washington)  and  other 
countries.     The  inch,  the  thirty-sixth  part  of  a  yard,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  determined  from  three  grains  of  barley 
placed  end  to  end.     It  was  formerly  divided  into  twelve  parts 
called  lines. 

TABLE  OF   ENGLISH   LINEAR  MEASURE. 
Inches. 

12  =        1  foot. 
36  =        3      =        1  yard. 
72  =        6      =        2=1  fathom. 
198=      16.5=        5.5=      2.75=      1  perch  or  rod. 
7920=    660      =    220     =110       -    40  =  1  furlong. 
63360  =  5280     =  1760      =  880       =  320  =  8  =  1  mile. 

3  miles  =  1  league. 

57.  The  Metric   system,   expressed  in   millimeters,   centi- 
meters, decimeters,  meters,  etc.  (see  Table),  is  used  in  foreign 
countries  and  also  in  the  United  States  on  watch  tools  and 
machinery  going  abroad.     It  is  based  on  the  meter,  the  dis- 
tance between  two  fine  lines  on  a  bar  of  platiniridium  and 
standard  at  the  melting  point  of  ice  (0°  C.)«     The  original  is 
kept  at  the  International  Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures  at 

16 


LAYING  OUT  WORK.  17 

Sevres,  France,  with  copies  in  the  United  States  (Washing- 
ton) and  other  countries.  The  meter  (39.37  inches)  is 
nearly  the  ten- millionth  part  of  the  distance  from  the  equator 
to  the  North  Pole,  as  originally  derived  by  measurement  of  an 
arc  of  a  meridian.  See  Tables,  pp.  173-177. 

TABLE  OF  METRIC  LINEAR  MEASURE. 

10  millimeters  (mm.) =  1  centimeter cm. 

10  centimeters =  1  decimeter dm. 

10  decimeters =  1  meter m. 

10  meters =  1  decameter Dm. 

10  decameters =  1  hectometer Hm. 

10  hectometers .  =  1  kilometer.*. Km. 

MEASURING,  LAYING  OUT,  AND  OPERATING  TOOLS 
AND  METHODS   OF  USE. 

58.  Laying  out  work.  —  The  principles  involved  in  laying 
out  work  for  chipping,  filing,  or  machining  are  very  similar 
to  those  involved  in  mechanical  drawing,  but  the  resulting 
lay-out  must  be  accurate. 

The  introduction  of  jigs,  templets,  and  special  fixtures  for 
producing  duplicate  work,  especially  in  making  small  machine 
parts,  renders  laying  out  unnecessary  after  first  tool  or  machine 
is  made.  The  necessity  of  laying  out  some  classes  of  work 
carefully,  accurately,  and  with  fine  lines  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized,  for  unless  the  lines  are  correct  accurate  results 
cannot  be  obtained. 

The  points  of  center  punch,  scriber  or  scratch  awl,  dividers, 
scratch  gage,  and  surface  gage,  should  be  ground  sharp. 

59.  Chalk  is   used   on    rough   surfaces    as   castings,   etc., 
rubbed  on  the  surface  and  then  smoothed  down  with  the 
fingers,  making  a  sufficient  coat  on  which  a  line  may  be  made 
visible.     For  large  surfaces  mix  powdered  chalk  or  whiting 
with  water  or  alcohol,  or  white  lead  with  turpentine,  and  apply 
with  a  brush. 

60.  Copper  sulphate.  —  A  marking  solution,  composed  of  one 
ounce  of  copper  sulphate,  four  ounces  of  water,  and  about  one 
teaspoonful  of  nitric  acid,  when  applied  to  iron  or  steel  that 


18 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


is  clean,  will  give  a  bright  copper  surface,  and  will  show  lines 
drawn  by  scriber,  dividers,  surface  gage,  etc.,  distinctly.  Sn:all 
pieces  of  steel  are  often  heated  to  a  blue  for  a  similar  purpose. 

61.  The    student,  to   work  accurately  and  expeditiously, 
should  be  supplied  with  a  variety  of  small  tools  of  the  best 
quality. 

62.  The  two-foot  rule,  Fig.  13,  is  madeof  boxwood,  trimmed 
with  brass  and  consists  of  four  parts  hinged  together,  grad- 
uated   into    inches    and    subdivided    into    halves,    quarters, 


FIG.  13.  —  TWO-FOOT  RULE. 

eighths,  tenths,  twelfths,  sixteenths,  and  scales.     It  is  adapted 
to  comparatively  rough  work  only. 

63.  Standard  steel  rules  are  obtainable  from  1  to  48  inches 
in  length,  graduated  into  various  subdivisions  of  an  inch, 
tempered  or  untempered.  In  Fig.  14,  rule  (No.  4)  is  grad- 


1  1   1  1  1  1  1  1   1 


1  1  1 

2 


I     I     I 


FIG.  14. — THREE-INCH  STANDARD  STEEL  RULE  No.  4,  FULL  SIZE. 


'ooi 


^  1  TEMPERED  2. 

,  i, J,i,  I  ,i,l, i,  1 1  i,l,i,l,i,.l,  i, I, !,l,i, I,  i,  !,i,  ji.L.iJ.,.L.J.i.iiL.iJ.Li.i.LiJ,iJ,i.l.iJj.lj.Li.i.iJ.i.l.i.l.i.l.i 


FIG.  15.  —  THREE-INCH  STANDARD  STEEL  RULE,  No.  7,  FULL  SIZE. 

uated  on  one  side  as  shown;  on  the  other,  into  32ds  and  64ths. 
The  ends  are  graduated  as  at  A  and  B  for  measuring  recesses, 
etc.  Many  prefer  the  rule  in  Fig.  15  (No.  7)  with  one  edge 


CALIPERS. 


19 


graduated  into  lOOths  and  the  other  edges  into  64ths,  32ds, 
and  16ths. 

Steel  rules  are  accurate  and,  when  skilfully  used,  are  second 
only  to  micrometer  and  vernier  calipers. 

64.  Calipers.  —  Work  is  measured  with  calipers,  microme- 
ter or  vernier,  and  standard  or  limit  gages,  depending  on  the 
accuracy  required  and  where  the  rule  alone  would  be  imprac- 
ticable. 

Accurate  setting  and  measuring  with  calipers  require  a 
delicate  touch  and  good  judgment.  Calipers  may  be  set  by  a 
steel  rule  to  produce  results  within  .001"  or  less. 

65.  Outside  calipers  are  used  in  measuring  or  testing  out- 
side work,  Fig.  16. 

Inside  calipers  are  used  in  measuring  or  testing  inside  work, 
Fig.  17. 


FIG.  16.  —  OUT- 
SIDE SPRING 
CALIPERS. 


FIG.  17.  —  INSIDE 
SPRING  CAM- 
PERS. 


WORK 

FIG.  18.  — KEY 
HOLE  CALI- 
PERS. 


FIG.    19.  —  SPRING 
DIVIDERS. 


66.  Keyhole  calipers  are  used  to  measure  from  hole  to  edge, 
as  in  Fig.  18,  the  throw  of  a  cam,  the  thickness  of  wall  of  tube, 
to  test  thickness  of  walls  of  hole  in  round  piece  to  find  if  hole 
is  central,  etc. 

67.  Dividers  are  used  to  describe  circles  on  metals   as  in 
Fig.  19  and  for  similar  work.     For  large  circles,  spacing,  etc., 
use  extension  dividers  or  trammels. 

Attention.  —  Some  calipers  and  dividers  are  provided  with 
a  spring  nut  that  slides  along  screw  for  quick  adjustment  and 
engages  screw  for  fine  adjustment. 


20 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


Friction  joint  calipers  and  dividers  may  be  set  approxi- 
mately by  opening  or  closing  with  the  hand.  The  accurate 
adjustment  is  obtained  by  lightly  rapping  one  leg  on  a  hard 
substance. 

68.  Standard  steel  straight  edge,  Fig.  20,  has  one  beveled 
edge  A,  preferably  tempered  and  accurately  finished  by  grind- 
ing. It  is  used  for  very  fine  work  where  a  straight  edge 
(180°  angle)  is  required. 


END  OF 
WORK 


FIG.  20.  —  STANDARD  STEEL  STRAIGHT  EDGE. 

69.   Center  square.  —  Fig.  21  consists  of  head  A  and  blade 
B,  and  is  used  to  draw  radial  lines  to  locate  on  work   C 

center  D. 

70.  Combination  cen- 
ter square,  miter,  pro- 
tractor, etc.  —  Fig.  22 
consists  of  sliding  head 
E  clamped  to  blade  F 
by  nut  G.  It  maybe  used 
to  draw  a  radial  line  on 

FIG.  21.  —  LOCATING  CENTER  OF  CYLINDER.  ,    u    ,  T~  T      ~   . 

work  H  along  KL.  Other 
heads  such  as  square,  miter,  protractor,  and  level  are  furnished. 


xV                   CENTER 

>v                   SQUARE 

V           /  \                       I 

\v/xx       BLADE    B 

\ 

^J 

FIG.  22.  —  DRAWING  DIAMETRICAL  LINE  WITH      FIG.  23.  —  DRAWING  LINES 
COMBINATION  SQUARE.  FOR  KEY  SEAT. 

71.  Key  seating  rule.  —  A,  Fig.  23,  is  used  to  obtain  parallel 
lines  on  shafts  or  in  holes  for  key  ways  and  mortises.  The  rule 
is  placed  on  shaft  B  and  a  scriber  used  to  draw  line  along 


MARKING    AND    TESTING    GAGES. 


21 


SCRATCH    GAGE 


edge  C.     Circle  D  may  be  drawn  as  a  guide  for  lines  and  for 
a  drill  when  hole  is  desired. 

72.  To  mark  line  around  shaft,  coat  with  sulphate  of  copper 
and  pass  steel  tape  or  a  strip  of  stiff  paper  around  shaft. 
Hold  tight  and  mark  line  at 

edge  of  tape  with  scriber. 

73.  Scratch  gages,  Fig.  24, 
are  used  for  drawing  parallel 
lines.     Upon  beam  A  head  B 
is  clamped  by  screw    C,  and 
marker  D  by  screw   E.      To 
set  the  gage,  clamp  head  B 

* WORK   F 

at     required    distance     from 

marker  D,  using  graduations 

on  beam  or  on  a  steel  rule. 

Place  it  on  work  as  at  F  with  head  pressed  against  side  of 

work  and  push  it  in  direction  of  arrow  with  marker  inclined 

as  at  D',  producing  line  GH. 


H 

WORK 

F 


FIG.  24.  —  DRAWING  PARALLEL 
LINES. 


FIG.  25.  —  TESTING  DEPTH  OF  HOLE. 


74.  Depth  gage,  Fig.  25,  consists  of  beam  A,  rule  B,  and 
clamp  C.  The  rule  may  be  used  at  end  of  beam  as  at  D  when 
measuring  depths  close  to  shoulder.  Depth  of  hole  E  in  work 
F  is  li".  Micrometer  depth  gages  are  obtainable. 


22 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


V  A 

FIG.  26.— 

CENTER 

PUNCH  FOR 

INDENTING 

CENTERS. 


75.  Center  punch,  Fig.  26,  is  used  to  produce, 
when  struck  with  a  hammer,  an  indentation  in 
metal.  It  should  be  held  perpendicularly  to 
work  or  it  will  slip  when  struck.  Point  A  should 
be  hardened,  tempered,  and  ground  to  an  angle 
of  60°.  End  B  should  also  be  reduced. 


FIG.  27.  —  SCRIBER  FOR  DRAWING  LINES. 

76.  A  forged  scriber  (scratch  awl),  A  B,  Fig.  27, 
is  used  to  mark  lines  upon  work  when  guided  by 
edge  of  blade  of  square  or  straight  edge. 


77.   Bench    surface    gage    and   leveling    plate, 

Fig.  28.  —  To  use  gage  A  to  draw  line  on  work  B 
parallel  to  leveling  plate   C.   Coat  surface   with 
chalk    or     copper    sulphate.      Set     gage   at  A' , 
place  rule  D  against  blade  of  square  E,  loosen  screw  F  and 
adjust  scriber  G  approximately  to  desired  line  on  rule;    set 


FIG.  28.  —  LINING  OUT  WORK  WITH  SURFACE  GAGE. 


point  of  scriber  accurately  by  means  of  adjusting  screw  H, 
then  lock  by  screw  F;    press  work  to  leveling   plate  while 


SURFACE    GAGE. 


23 


gage  A  is  grasped  with  right  hand  to  draw   scriber  across 
work,  producing  line  KL. 

78.  Universal  surface  gage,  Fig.  29,  is  used  for  laying  out 
work,  leveling,  and  lining  castings,  etc.     Base  A  is  grooved 


FIG.  29.  —  LINING  OUT  ECCENTRIC  STRAP  WITH  UNIVERSAL  SURFACE  GAGE. 

for  use  on  circular  work.  Spindle  B  carries  double  clamp  C 
that  holds  scriber  D.  Nut  E  clamps  scriber  at  any  height  or 
angle.  Nut  F  clamps  spindle  at  any  angle.  Lever  J  and 
nut  K  serve  for  fine  adjustments. 

The  gage  is  used  for  leveling  at  G  and  G' ',  the  strap  bolted  to 
angle  plate  H.  To  set  scriber  to  given  height  adjust  approxi- 
mately, then  accurately  by  lever  J  and  nut  K.  To  draw  line 
parallel  to  edge  of  leveling  plate,  or  to  align  work  on  planer, 
push  down  pins  L,  L'.  For  small  work  insert  scriber  D  in  hole 
M.  For  depth  gage  pass  scriber  through  slot  N. 

79.  Automatic  adjustable  center  punch,  A,  Fig.  30,  is  used 
to  produce  marks  of  uniform  size,  which  is  important  when 
accuracy  is  desired.  Bring  tool  to  desired  location  as  at  circle 


24 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


on  jig  B,  and  press  knurled  handle  downward  to  produce  the 
indentation.  The  depth  of  indentation  can  be  adjusted  by 
screw  C.  Use  magnifying  glass  D  for  accurate  work.  Point 
E  is  removable  for  grinding. 


ADJUSTABLE    c 
AUTOMATIC 
CENTER 


FIG.  30.  —  LAYING  OUT  A  JIG. 


80.   The   monkey  wrench,  A,  Fig.  31,  consists  of  bar  5, 
handle  C,  and  jaws  D  and  E.      Jaw  E  is  moved  by   nurled 


FIG.  31.  —  TIGHTENING  NUT. 


head  F  of  screw  G.     Force  is  applied  on  handle  in  direction 
of  arrow.     To  avoid  springing  jaws  and  scarring  work,  place 


WRENCHES. 


25 


wrench  with  nut  H  well  in  against  bar  B.     Never  use  monkey 
wrench  as  a  hammer. 

81.   Pipe  attachment  for  monkey  wrench.  Fig.  32.  --To 
wrench  L  is  attached  taper  jaw  M  with  teeth,  by  screw  N. 


FIG.  32.  —  USING  MONKEY  WRENCH  AS  PIPE  WRENCH. 

When  force  is  applied,  wrench  will  grip  and  turn  pipe  P.  A 
piece  of  a  -|"  round  file  makes  a  good  pipe  attachment.  It  is 
pressed  against  pipe  and  sliding  jaw. 

82.   Solid  wrench,  Fig.  33,  has  less  tendency  than  a  monkey 
wrench  to  round  the  corners  of  nuts  and  cap  screws. 


FIG.  33.  —  SOLID  WRENCH. 


FIG.  34.  —  TOOL-POST  WRENCH. 


83.  A  tool-post  wrench,  A,  Fig.  34,  is  used  on   head  of 
screw  B  of  tool  post  C  to  fasten  tool  D. 


26 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


84.  Socket  wrenches,  A,  Fig.  35,  are  used  to  operate  nuts 
and  cap  screws  that  are  located  in  deep  places,  as  nut  B. 


FIG.  35. • 


FIG.  36. 


85.  Spanner  wrenches  of  many  forms  are  used  to  operate 
circular  nuts  or  collars.     Wrench  A,  Fig.  36,  is  being  used 
to   turn  the  circular  nut  B  to  adjust  and  fasten 
box  C  of  spindle  D.     Pin  E  of  spanner  fits  into 
'~c         hole  F  of  nut. 


-D 


86.  Screw-driver,    Fig.    37,    is    made    of    steel, 
hardened  and  tempered.     To  avoid  injury  to  sides 


FIG.  37.  —  SCREW-DRIVER. 


of  slot  in  screw,  its  sides  must  be  ground  parallel 
as  at  A  and  its  edges  B  and  C  slightly  rounded. 

87.   Plumb  bob,   Fig.  38,   is  used  to   test   and 
FIG.  38.  —    establish  verticals  in  setting  up  machinery  shaft- 

PLUMB  BOB.  ith  mercury  at 


hardened  and  body  and  point  are  ground.     It  is  suspended 
with    fine  silk  line  C  attached  to    nut    D.    In  the  absence 


SPIRIT  LEVEL. 


27 


of  a  regular  plumb  bob,  an  improvised  one  may  be  made  by 
tying  a  string  to  a  nut  or  collar. 

88.   Spirit  level,  Fig.  39,  is  used  to  establish  horizontals  and 
verticals,  to  level  and  shafting  machines. 


FIG.  39.  —  SPIRIT  LEVEL. 

Three  tubes  at  A,  B,  and  C  in  frame  are  nearly  filled  with 
alcohol,  leaving  a  small  air  space  called  the  "  bubble." 

Tube  A  is  used  to  test  horizontals.  Tubes  B  and  C  to  test 
verticals.  When  bubble  is  central  with  line  on  tube,  the  work 
is  true. 

The  truth  of  a  level  may  be  tested  by  blocking  up  one  end 
until  the  bubble  is  central;  then  reverse  level,  and  if  bubble 
returns  to  the  center,  the  level  is  correct. 

89.  Pliers  are  made  in  a  variety  of  styles  and  sizes.  Parallel 
pliers,  A,  Fig.  40,  are  so  constructed  that  the  jaws  open  to  the 


PLIERS 


FIG.  40.  —  BENDING  METAL  WITH  PLIERS. 

full  capacity  parallel  to  each  other,  giving  a  very  effective  hold 
on  work  B. 

90.  Nippers  or  wire  cutters.  —  There  are  many  styles ; 
some  cut  at  the  end,  others  at  the  side.  Pliers  are  also  obtain- 
able that  have  nippers  and  are  called  combination  or  cutting 
pliers. 


28 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


To  cut  off  a  piece  of  wire  with  nipper  A,  Fig.  41,  pass  wire  B 
between  jaws  and  compress  handle.     Stops  C  and  D  may  be 


CUTTING 

NIPPER 


FIG.  41.  —  CUTTING  OFF  WIRE  WITH  CUTTING  NIPPERS. 

adjusted  to  prevent  jaws  from  touching  and  dulling  each 
other,  and  spring  E  keeps  them  open. 

To  cut  hard  wire,  nick  with  file  or  emery  wheel  and  break 
off  by  bending. 


CHAPTER    III. 

CHIPPING:  HAND  AND  POWER.    TOOL-GRINDING. 
CHIPPING:  HAND  AND  POWER. 

91.  Hand  work  includes  operations,  such  as  chipping,  filing, 
scraping,  and  fitting,  performed  with  hand  tools,  and  dates 
back  to  the  Stone  Age,  when  stone  tools' were  applied  and 
used  in  the  same  manner  as  chisels  and  files  are  used  to-day. 

The  guide  principle  in  hand  tools  can  be  traced  from  the 
simplest  hand  tools  to  the  most  complex  machine  tools.  The 
tool  that  possesses  the  guide  principle  in  a  large  degree  is  com- 
paratively easy  to  manipulate,  while  one  that  possesses  it  only 
in  a  small  degree  requires  special  training.  The  carpenter's 
plane  possesses  the  guide  principle  in  a  large  degree.  The 
chipping  chisel  with  its  single  cutting  edge  and  no  support 
but  the  hand  is  the  simplest  form  of  cutting  tool  but  is  diffi- 
cult to  use.  A  file  possesses  the  guide  principle  only  in  a 
limited  degree,  for  it  cuts  at  every  part  of  its  surface. 


FIG.  42.  —  HOLDING  WORK  IN  VISE. 
29 


30  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

92.  Machinists'  vise,  A,  Fig.  42,  is  made  of  cast  iron  with 
parallel  jaws  B  and  B'.     It  is  fastened  to  bench  C,  33"  or 
34"  in  height,  by  bolts  or  lag  screws,  as  at  D  and  D'.     The 
sliding  jaw  B/  is  moved  in  or  out  to  grip  work  E  by  screw  F, 
operated  by  handle  G.     The  jaws  are  faced  with  steel  milled 
to  increase  their  grip.     Some  vises  can  be  swiveled  to  any 
angle,  and  others  have  one   swivel   jaw  for   holding   taper 
work. 

Soft  supplementary  jaws  of  copper,  brass,  lead,  leather,  or 
wood,  should  be  supplied  on  vises  to  protect  finished 
work. 

93.  Chipping  hammer,  designated  by  the  shape  of  its  peen, 
as  at  A,  B  and  C,  Fig.  43,  weighs  from  f  to  If  pounds.     A 


FIG.  43.  —  CHIPPING  HAMMERS,  DIFFERENT  TYPES. 


li -pound  ball  peen    made  of    carbon  steel  hardened  and 
tempered  on  face  and  peen  is  suitable  for  the  average  student. 


CHIPPING    CHISELS. 


31 


The  different  peens  are  used  for  various  kinds  of  riveting, 
peening  and  stretching  metal. 

Handle  D  is  of  hickory,  10"  to  16"  in  length,  depending  on 
weight  of  hammer,  and  is  not  too  stiff  at  shank  E  to  cause  a 
shock  that  would  tire  the  hand  and  arm.  The  handle  is  fitted 
in  head  F  and  held  by  an  S-shaped  iron  wedge,  G.  The  face 
H  is  slightly  crowning. 

94.  Flat  cold  chisel,  A,  Fig.  44,  is  made  of  octagonal  tool 
steel  (70-point).  Flats  B  and  B'  are  forged  to  plane  surfaces, 


FIG.  44.  —  CHIPPING  CHISEL. 

symmetrical  with  the  sides  of  steel.  Head  C  and  C"  is  reduced. 
Cutting  edge  D,  is  forged  wider  than  the  body.  Thickness 
of  D'  is  about  -^".  A  thick  chisel  is  both  difficult  to  grind 
and  to  hold  to  the  cut. 


c 


COLD  CHISEL,   E 


60° 


FIG.  45.  —  IMPROVED  CHIPPING  CHISEL. 

95.  An  improved  cold  chisel,  E,  Fig.  45.  The  blade  is  drawn 
thin  as  at  F,  F'  and  packed  by  heavy  blows  with  hammer 
given  under  a  dull  red  heat. 


32 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


96.  To  grind  cold  chisel,  A,  Fig.  46.  Grind  bevels  flat. 
If  convex,  as  at  B,  it  will  be  impossible  to  hold  the  chisel  to  the 
cut  and  chip  a  smooth  surface.  The  bevels  should  be  ground 
parallel  to  the  flats  and  slightly  curved  at  C.  Wrong  methods 
of  grinding  are  shown  at  D,  E,  F,  and  G. 


A  B 

GOOD  BEVEL      BAD  BEVEL         VERY    GOOD 


F  G 

VERY  BAD  VERY  BAD 


END  VIEW  OF  CHISELS 


FIG.  46.  —  GOOD  AND  BAD  CHISEL  GRINDING. 


The  cutting  angle  is  changed  to  suit  the  nature  of  material 
to  be  cut.  For  cast  iron  it  is  60°  to  70°;  steel  and  wrought 
iron,  50°  to  60°;  brass,  40°  to  50°;  the  softer  metals  as 
copper,  Babbitt,  and  lead,  about  35°.  Grind  the  chisel  to  as 
sharp  an  angle  as  will  stand  and  do  good  work. 

97.  In  machine  work  there  are  two  processes  —  Roughing 
and  finishing.  — 

Roughing  is  the  process  of  rapidly  removing  surplus  stock, 
with  one  or  more  cuts,  with  approximate  accuracy,  leaving  an 
allowance  for  finishing  with  one  cut. 

Finishing  is  the  process  of  taking  the  last  cut  to  produce  a 
smooth,  accurate  surface  and  a  desired  size. 

Chipping  often  corresponds  to  roughing;  and  filing  to  finishing. 
Chipping  is  used  to  prepare  castings  and  forgings  to  be  ma- 
chined, to  snag  castings  (see  §  375),  to  fit  castings  to  each 
other,  to  cut  key  ways  in  shafts,  pulleys  and  gears,  and  oil 
grooves  in  bearings,  etc.  The  most  skilful  chipping  is  done  in 
making  steel  cutting  dies  and  punches. 

Attention.  —  Snagging  is  the  process  of  removing  the  sprues, 
gates,  fins  and  other  projections  from  castings  by  chipping  and 
filing  with  old  files. 


CHIPPING. 


33 


FIG.  47.  —  CORRECT  POSITION  FOR  CHIPPING. 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


98.  Method  of  using  cold  chisel.  —  The  chisel  is  grasped  as 
in  Fig.  47  with  sufficient  force  to   guide  and  hold  it  to  the 
cut.     The  eye  follows  the  cutting  edge,  not  the  head  of  the 
chisel. 

99.  Method  of  using  a  hammer.  —  Grasp  the  handle  near 
the  end  with  sufficient  force  to  control  the  blow,  swing  arm 
back  from  elbow,  carrying  the  head  of  the  hammer  about  ver- 
tically over  the  shoulder,   Fig.  47.     Begin  with  short  light 
strokes  and  increase  to  long  and  vigorous  blows  for  effective 
work. 

100.  Lubricant  for  chipping.  —  Metals  are  generally  chipped 
dry.      When    chipping    key    ways,    slots,    grooves,    etc.,    in 
steel  or  wrought  iron,    the  chisel    will  cut   better  if   occa- 
sionally touched  to  a  piece  of  cotton  waste  well  saturated 
with  oil. 

101.  Method  of  beginning  and  continuing  a  cut.  —  To  chip 
to  line  AB,  Fig.  48,  take  heavy  roughing  cuts  as  CD  (Ty  to 
TV'  in  depth)  and  leave  ^y  for  finishing. 


CHISEL 

E 


CHIP 

F 


PACKING 
BLOCK 

K 


FIG.  48.  —  BEGINNING  THE  CUT. 

The  dotted  line  CD  represents  depth  of  first  roughing  cut. 
To  begin  cut,  place  chisel  E  horizontally/and  by  a  sharp  blow 
remove  chip  F,  as  at  G,  Fig.  49.  Then  incline  chisel  upward, 
as  at  E',  Fig.  49,  until  lower  bevel  makes  small  angle  H  to  line 
of  cut  C'D'  for  clearance.  If  material  is  hard  cast  iron,  the 


CHIPPING. 


35 


chip  will  fly  off;  if  steel  or  wrought  iron,  the  chip  will  curl 
upward  as  at  J,  Fig.  50. 

Attention.  —  Hold  work  so  that  it  may  be  operated  upon 
horizontally  if  possible.  Work  may  be  prevented  from 
slipping  by  packing  block  K,  Fig.  48. 


CHISEU      CHIP 
J 


BLOCK 


FIG.  49.  —  ROUGHING  CUT, 
CAST  IRON. 


1 


1 


FIG.  50.  —  ROUGHING  CUT,  STEEL, 
OB  WROUGHT  IRON. 


To  prevent  breaking  out  at  end  in  chipping,  especially  cast 
iron,  stop  cut  \"  from  end  of  work,  reverse  work  in  vise  and 
chip  remainder. 

102.  Cape  chisel,  Fig.  51  (cross-cut  chisel),  is  used  for 
cutting  key  ways,  grooves,  and  work  of  similar  nature.  It 
is  thin  at  point  A  and  wide  at  B  to  give  strength.  It  is 


r 


FIG.  51.  —  CAPE  CHISEL. 


ground  to  decrease  in  width  from  A  to  C  for  clearance.  A 
cape  chisel  is  necessary  in  chipping  broad  surfaces  by  chip- 
ping a  series  of  grooves  to  the  required  depth,  about  ?ff  apart, 
across  the  surface;  then  the  ridges  are  removed  with  a  flat 
chisel. 


36 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


103.  A  small  round-nose  chisel  or  gouge,  Fig.  52,  is  used  for 
half-round  chamfers  or  small  grooves.     It  is  made  wider  at  A 


FIG.  52.  —  SMALL  ROUND-NOSE  CHISEL. 


FIG.  53.  —  CHIPPING  CONCAVE  SURFACE. 

than  at  B  to  give  it  clearance,  and  thick  at  D  to  give  it  strength. 
It  is  given  a  slight  bevel  shown  at  C,  Fig.  52,  and  C' ',  Fig.  53. 

104.  A  large  round-nose  chisel  or  gouge,  Fig.  54,  is  used  to 
produce  concave  surfaces.  It  is  wider  at  A  than  at  B  in  order  to 


FIG.  54.  —  LARGE  ROUND-NOSE  CHISEL. 

make  it  possible  to  govern  the  direction  of  cut.  Its  curva- 
ture must  be  of  a  smaller  radius  than  that  of  the  work  it  is 
to  cut  to  give  clearance.  The  front  angle  is  ground  to  about 
45°,  then  a  slight  bevel  is  ground  at  C  on  under  side. 


CHIPPING    CHISELS. 


37 


105.   A  center  chisel  or  oil-groove  chisel,  A  and  B,  Fig.  55, 
is  used  in  the  operation  of  drilling  to  draw  drill,  also  to 


D-A 


FIG.  55.  —  CENTER  CHISEL. 

chip  oil  grooves  in  bearings  or  boxes.     To  chip  circular  oil 
grooves  use  a  bent  chisel. 

106.  A  diamond-point  chisel,  Fig.  56,  is  used  for  forming 
square  corners  in  holes,  key  ways,  and  work  of  similar  nature. 


FIG.  56.  —  DIAMOND-POINT  CHISEL. 


It  is  also  used  by  boiler  makers  for  cutting  holes.     For  heavy 
cuts  it  should  be  slightly  beveled  at  C. 


L 


FIG.  57.  —  SIDE-CHIPPING  CHISEL. 


107.  A  side  chisel,  Fig.  57,  is  used  for  chipping  the  sides  of 
slots,  key  ways,  grooves,  etc.  For  heavy  cuts  it  is  beveled 
at  C. 


38  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

108.    To  chip  plane  surfaces.      Bevels,  Fig.  58. 


FIG.  53.     SCHEDULE  DRAWING  OF  CHIPPING  PLANE  SURFACES.  -*' 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


ROUGHING 
Stock  —  Iron  Casting. 


FINISHING 
Tool— Flat  Chisel 


Snag  block  with  cold  chisel. 
Coat  with  chalk  a  portion  of  sides, 
ends,  and  top,  and  smooth  with 
fingers,  (1),  (2). 

Set  scriber  of  bench  surface 
gage  &"  from  leveling  plate. 
Draw  lines  all  around,  (3),  (4). 

Hold  block  in  vise  with  bevel 
lines  horizontal.  Grind  chisel  to 
angle  of  60°. 


Rough  chip  bevel  all  around  (5) 
&",  (6)  &',  two  cuts.  Leave  &" 
to  ^"  for  finishing.  If  chisel 
draws  in  too  deep,  lower  chisel. 

To  finish,  regrind  chisel,  press 
hard  on  work  and  chip  to  line,  (7). 
Test  with  blade  of  square.  With 
i"  cape  chisel  chip  spot  for  name, 
(8),  and  stamp  with  steel  stamp. 


Attention.  —  Keep  chisel  sharp  and  cut  continuously.  If  it  does 
not  keep  its  edge,  test  with  file ;  if  hard,  regrind ;  if  soft,  reharden 
and  temper.  When  chisel  becomes  too  thick,  reforge. 


PNEUMATIC    CHIPPING.  39 

109.  Pneumatic  hammer.  —  The  cold  chisel  may  be  used 
by  power  more  effectively  than  by  hand  by  means  of  the 
pneumatic  hammer  A,  Fig.  59,  shown  chipping  the  boiler  front  B, 
resting  on  bench  C.  The  chisel  D  has  a  hexagonal  shank  and 
fits  the  socket  of  the  machine.  The  handle  E  of  the  machine 
is  held  with  the  thumb  on  the  trigger  F,  which  controls  the  air 
supplied  to  the  hammer.  The  air  is  delivered  at  a  pressure  of 


FIG.  59.  —  PNEUMATIC  CHIPPING. 

about  80  pounds  per  square  inch  through  hose  G.  To  begin 
a  cut,  the  trigger  is  pressed  lightly;  after  the  cut  is  started, 
more  air  is  admitted,  making  the  blows  harder  and  more 
rapid.  Pneumatic  hammers  are  used  for  chipping,  calking, 
and  beading  boiler  tubes,  etc. 


40 


ELEMENTS    OF    MACHINE    WORK. 


TOOL  GRINDING. 

110.  Wet  tool  grinder. — Fig.  60  consists  of  column  A, 
grinding  wheel  B  in  dust-proof  bearings  C,  belt  D,  water  pipe 
E,  pump  F,  bait  G,  and  tool  rest  H.  A  No.  30  grinding 


FIG.  60.  —  WET  TOOL  GRINDER. 


wheel,  grade  3}  (silicate  process),  is  used  for  grinding  cut- 
ting tools.  The  wheel  should  be  not  less  than  20"  in 
diameter  and  \\"  to  2"  face,  is  used  wet  and  run  at  a  surface 
speed  of  4000  F.P.M.  A  small  quantity  of  sal  soda  in  the 


TOOL    GRINDING.  41 

4 

water  will  prevent  rust  of  machine  and  tools  and  improve  the 
cut  of  emery  wheels. 

111.  Emery  or  grinding  wheels  (see  Abrasives,  §  176)  for 
automatic  grinding  machines  are  run  at  5000  feet  per  minute 
periphery  speed;  but  for  special  work  from  4000  feet  to  6000 
feet  may  be  used.     A  wheel  running  at  4000  feet  has  a  max- 
imum stress  of  48  pounds;  5000  feet,  75  pounds;  and  6000 
feet,  108  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Wheels  should  be  run  as  slowly  as  practicable  to  have  an 
ample  margin  of  safety. 

Attention.  —  The  term  emery  may  mean  emery,  corundum, 
alundum,  or  carborundum,  as  all  of  these  abrasives  are  used 
for  grinding  wheels. 

112.  To  calculate  speeds  of  emery  wheels.  —  To  find  the 
surface  speed  in  feet  per  minute  of  an  emery  wheel:  first, 
obtain  with  a  speed  indicator  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the 
emery  wheel  spindle  per  minute.     Then  divide  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  wheel  per  minute  by  12,  and  multiply  the 
result  by  3.1416  times  the  diameter  of  the  emery  wheel  in 
inches. 

Example.  —  Find  the  surface  speed  of  a  24-inch  emery 
wheel  making  637  revolutions  per  minute. 

Solution. — -V/ X  3.1416  X  24  =  4000  feet  per  minute. 
This  is  an  effective  and  safe  surface  speed  for  wet  tool  grinders, 
for  emery  wheels  made  by  either  the  silicate  or  vitrified  pro- 
cess, and  for  hand  grinding. 

To  find  the  number  of  revolutions  an  emery  wheel  spindle 
should  run  to  give  a  required  cutting  speed,  diameter  of  wheel 
and  feet  per  minute  being  given. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  diameter  of  emery  wheel  in  inches  by 
3.1416  and  divide  the  feet  per  minute  (reduced  to  inches)  by 
that  product. 

Example.  —  Find  the  revolutions  of  a  spindle  for  a  24-inch 
emery  wheel  to  run  4000  feet  per  minute. 

12  X    4000 

Solution. -  =  637  revolutions. 

24X3.1416 


42 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


113.  To  true 
emery  wheel  by 
hand  as  at  A, 
Fig.  61.--  Use 
dresser  B  dry 
or,  preferably, 
with  water.  For 
heavy  truing, 
move  tool  rest 
C  back  about 
|"  and  clamp. 
Place  projec- 
tions D  inside  of  rest 


FIG.  62.  — TRUING  ROLL  FOR  EMERY 
WHEEL,  DOUBLE  WHEEL  WET 
TOOL  GRINDER. 


SLIDE  REST 

FIG.  61.  —  TRUING  EMERY  WHEEL  WITH  DRESSER. 

and  press  hard  on  rest.  Raise  handle 
E  and  move  dresser  back 
and  forth  across  face  of 
wheel  as  shown  by  arrows. 
For  light  truing,  move  tool 
rest  closer  to  wheel,  place 
projections  F  of  dresser 
B  on  rest,  press  down  hard 
and  move  dresser  back  and 
forth. 

When  hardened  steel 
disks  G  become  worn,  re- 
place with  new  ones.  In- 
stead of  using  dresser  by 
hand,  special  dresser  H 
may  be  used  in  slide  rest 
/,  which  is  clamped  to 
machine  in  place  of  tool 
rest  C. 


114.  To      true     emery 

wheel    by    power    with    truing    roll    A,  Fig.    6.  —  Oil    roll 

bearings  and  turn  hand  wheel  B  to  force  roll  against  revolv- 
ing wheel  with  considerable  pressure. 


TOOL    GRINDING. 


43 


Water  supply.  —  By  hand  wheel  C  one  end  of  trough 
D  is  lowered  into  tank  E  and  the  water  flows  from  tank 
into  trough  and  against  revolving  wheel  which  delivers 
water  through  guide  F  to  tool.  Rest  guard  G  prevents 
spattering. 

115.  Truing  with  a  diamond  tool.  —  To  true  eirery  wheel 
A,  Fig.  63,  use  diamond  tool  B  which  consists  of  black  dia- 
mond C  set  in  end  of  holder. 

Use  dry  or,  preferably,  with  water.  Hold  perpendicular  to 
wheel,  press  firmly  on  rest  and  move  across  face  of  wheel. 


BLACK  DIAMOND 
FIG.  63.  —  TRUING  EMERY  WHEEL  WITH  DIAMOND  TOOL. 


It  may  be  used  also  in  slide  rest  D.  Diamonds  are  set  in  two 
forms  of  holders  —  round  for  general  use,  and  rectangular, 
which  can  be  used  in  a  tool  post. 

116.  Grindstone  A,  Fig.  64,  consists  of  frame  B,  driving 
belt  C,  water  supply  pipe  DE,  drain  pipe  F,  tool  rest  G,  and 
truing  device  H.  The  grindstones  used  are  Ohio,  Nova 
Scotia,  English,  and  Huron  sandstone. 

A  stone  should  be  soft,  coarse,  and  have  uniformity  of  grit 
for  edge  tool  grinding,  and  should  revolve  at  a  surface  speed 
of  500  to  600  F.P.M.  It  is  used  with  water  but  is  never 


44 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


allowed  to  stand  for  a 
long  time  in  water,  as 
it  would  soften.  Long 
exposure  to  the  sun 
would  make  it  hard. 

117.  Grindstone  tru- 
ing device,  Fig.  64,  is 
clamped  to  trough  on 
side  of  stone  that 
moves  upward.  Turn 
wheel  H  to  bring  roll 
in  contact  with  stone. 
When  roll  is  dull,  an- 
neal, recut,  and  re-case- 
harden.  A  piece  of  pipe 
may  be  used  instead  of 
above,  as  follows:  clamp 

rest    G    hard    to    trough    FIG.  64.  —  GRINDSTONE  FOR  TOOL  GRINDING 

B,  hold  pipe  firmly  on  WITH  TRUING  DEVICE' 

rest  at  an  angle,  revolve  slowly  across  face  of  stone,   dry. 


FIG.  65.  —  CORRECT. 


FIG.  66.  —  INCORRECT. 


118.  To  grind  tools  with  emery  wheel  or  grindstone.  —  The 

relative  position  of  tool  and  grinding  wheel  shown  in  Fig.  65 


TOOL    GRINDING.  45 

is  correct.  If  chisel  is  held  as  in  Fig.  66,  a  wire  edge  will  be 
formed  which  is  not  desirable  as  in  most  cases  it  would  have 
to  be  oilstoned  off. 

Warning.  —  The  tool  rest  should  be  close  to  wheel  and 
clamped  firmly  to  frame  to  avoid  accidents. 

119.  To  grind  cold  chisel  A,  Fig.  67.  —  Apply  pressure 
with  the  left  hand  supported  and  steadied  on  tool  rest  B. 
Hold  tool  at  constant  angle  during  grinding.  See  Fig.  46. 


FIG.  67.  —  GKINDING  COLD  CHISEL. 

Attention.  —  Grasp  tool  firmly  when  grinding  to  produce 
flat  surfaces.  Do  not  bear  hard  on  emery  wheel. 

To  avoid  grinding  point  of  tool  excessively,  move  heel  of 
tool  to  touch  wheel  first,  then  raise  or  tilt  shank  until  bevel 
or  face  lies  flat  as  indicated  by  the  "  feel."  To  produce  a 
smooth  edge  and  even  wear  on  wheel,  move  tool  back  and  forth 
slowly  parallel  with  axis  of  wheel. 

For  Grinding  Lathe  and  Planer  Tools,  see  PRINCIPLES  OP 
MACHINE  WORK. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FILES.    HAND  AND  MACHINE  FILING.     HOW  FILES  ARE  MADE. 

FILES. 

120.  Files  are  largely  used  to  smooth  work  after  it  is  turned, 
planed,   milled,  etc.,  and  for  some  classes  of  work  that  are 
not  machined.      Files  are  also  very  useful  where  alterations 
are  to  be  made.     To  file  flat  surfaces,  the  position  of  hands 
and  arms  should  be  such  that  the  cutting  strokes  are  parallel. 

Classes  of  files.  —  Files  are  divided  into  two  classes:  hand 
and  mill  files.  In  the  hand  which  is  always  used  for  flat 
surfaces,  the  clearance  is  provided  by  the  convexity  of  the 
file;  in  the  mill,  or  lathe  file,  which  is  never  used  for  flat 
surfaces,  the  curve  of  the  lathe  work  provides  the  clearance. 
See  Mill  File,  p.  51. 

121.  General  description.  —  A  file  has  three  distinguishing 
characteristics,  —  its  length,   which  is  measured  exclusively 
of   its  tang;  its   kind  or  name,  which  has  reference  to  the 
shape  or  style;  its  cut,  which  has  reference  not  only  to  the 
character  but  also  to  the  relative  degree  of  coarseness  of  the 
teeth. 

Shape  of  files.  —  Flat,  half-round,  round,  square,  triangular 
(three  square),  pillar,  mill,  etc. 

122.  Cut  of  files  consists  of  three  distinct  forms,  single  cut, 
double  cut,  and  rasp. 


FIG.  68.  —  SINGLE  Cur  FILE. 


Single  cut  file,  Fig.  68  has  a  single  course  of  chisel  cuts 
across  its  surface,  parallel  to  each  other,  but  at  an  angle  to  the 
central  line,  varying  from  70°  to  85°  according  to  requirements. 

46 


FILES. 


47 


Double-cut  file,  Fig.  69,  has  two  courses  of  chisel  cuts  cross- 
ing each  other.  The  first  or  "  over  cut  "  is  35°  to  55°  with 
the  central  line,  and  the  second  or  "  up  cut  "  is  from  70°  to 
85°  and  usually  finer  than  the  first. 


FIG.  69.  —  DOUBLE  CUT  FILE. 


o-   O-OO-O-OOOO-O-O 
o-O- O*-  O>  <V<»-  O>< >-j i>  o.  O 


FIG.  70.  —  RASP  CUT. 


Rasp,  Fig.  70,  has  the  teeth  disconnected;  each  tooth  is 
made  by  a  punch. 

123.    Coarseness  is  designated  by  the  following  terms: 


Single  Cut. 
Rough 
Coarse 
Bastard 
2dCut 
Smooth 


Double  Cut. 
Rough 
Coarse 
Bastard 
2dCut 
Smooth 
Dead  Smooth 


Rasp. 
Rough 
Coarse 
Bastard 
2dCut 
Smooth 


124.  Swiss  pattern  (extra  fine)  files  compared  with  regular 
files.  —  Swiss  pattern  or  extra  fine  files  are  designated  by 
figures,  as  follows:  "  00,  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8."  Number 

00  is  coarsest  and  corresponds  closely  to  the  bastard;  number 

1  to  the  2d  cut;  number  3  to  the  smooth;  and  number  5  to  the 
dead  smooth. 


48 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


Large  files  are  slightly  coarser  than  small  files  of  same 
degree  of  coarseness. 

125.  Uses  and  names  applied  to  files.  —  Coarse  rasps  are 
used  by  horseshoers,  bastard  by  carriage  makers,  2d  cut  by 
shoemakers,  and  smooth  by  cabinet  makers. 

Rough  and  coarse  cut  files  are  used  on  soft  material,  on 
leather,  bone,  etc. 

The  bastard  file  is  the  coarsest  file  used  in  general  machine 
work.  For  bench  work,  the  double-cut  files  of  different 
degrees  of  coarseness  are  used,  and  for  lathe  work,  single-cut. 

File  parts.  —  The  different  parts  of  a  hand  file  are  named  in 
Fig.  71. 


POINT 


EDGE 

FIG.  71.     PARTS  OF  A  FILE. 

Safe  edge  (or  side)  is  a  name  given  to  that  part  of  a  file  that 
is  without  teeth. 

126.  Classes  of  files.  —  Regular  files  are  divide  from 
the  form  of  their  cross-section  into  three  geometrical  classes, 
quadrangular,  triangular,  and  circular.  Each  class  is  again 
divided  according  to  general  outline  of  file  into  full  taper, 
taper,  and  blunt.  Taper  and  blunt  of  some  kinds,  both 
regular  and  Swiss  pattern,  with  small  cross-sections  are  called 
slim  taper,  slim  blunt,  half-round  slim,  square  slim,  round 
slim,  three-square  slim. 


FIG.  72. 


Full  taper.  —  A  file,  Fig.  72,  with  a  convexity  on  sides  from 
point  to  heel,  its  greatest  cross-section  being  near  middle. 


FILES. 


49 


Taper.  —  A  file  whose  point  is  reduced  in  size  (both  width 
and  thickness)  by  a  gradually  narrowing  section  extending 
from  one-half  to  two-thirds  length  of  file  from  point. 

Slim.  —  A  file  smaller  in  its  cross-section  than  regular  file  of 
its  kind,  and  superseding  regular  patterns. 

Blunt.  —  A  file  that  preserves  its  sectional  shape  from  point 
to  tang. 

127.  Hand  files. —  A  file  parallel  in  width,  with  one  safe  edge 
and  full  taper  or  bellied  in  thickness.  It  is  double  cut  and  made 


FIG.  73. 


FIG.  74. 


FIG.  75. 


FIG.  76. 


in  regular  cuts:  hand  bastard,  Fig.  73;  hand  2d  cut,  Fig.  74; 
hand  smooth,  Fig.  75;  and  hand  dead  smooth,  Fig.  76.  Its 
convexity  gives  it  clearance.  These  four  files  are  used  for 
smoothing  flat  and  convex  surfaces  of  planed  or  rough  machine 
work.  Lengths  4"  to  16". 


50 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


FIG.  77. 


Flat  file,  Fig.  77,  a  file  taper  in  shape,  double  cut,  mostly 
bastard,  although  2d  cut,  smooth  and  dead  smooth  are  used. 
While  a  common  file,  its  uses  are  confined  to  rougher  kinds  of 
filing.  Lengths  4"  to  16". 


FIG.  78. 


Square  file,  Fig.  78,  has  considerable  taper;  made  in  slim  and 
blunt  shapes,  usually  double  cut;  bastard  being  most  used, 
although  2d  cut  and  smooth  are  sometimes  used.  It  is  useful 
in  enlarging  holes  of  square  or  rectangular  shape,  as  dies  and 
key  ways.  Lengths  4"  to  16". 


FIG.  79. 


Pillar  file,  Fig.  79,  resembles  a  hand  file  in  general  shape  and 
cut.  Made  with  one  or  two  safe  edges;  useful  on  narrow  work. 
Two  sizes,  narrow  and  extra  narrow.  Lengths  6"  to  14". 


FIG.  80. 


Warding  file,  Fig.  80,  is  parallel  in  thickness,  about  Ty  thick; 
has  much  taper  in  width;  double  cut  and  usually  bastard; 
useful  to  file  out  ward  notches  in  keys.  Lengths  3"  to  8". 


FILES. 


51 


FIG.  81. 

Mill  file,  Fig.  81,  is  slightly  taper  in  width  and  thick- 
ness; usually  single  cut.  Grades  commonly  used,  bastard  and 
2d  cut.  It  is  made  with  safe  edges  and  used  for  work  in  the 
lathe,  also  for  draw-filing.  Mill  files  made  with  round  edges 
are  used  for  filing  mill  saws.  See  PRINCIPLES  OF  MACHINE 
WORK. 

Attention.  — A  mill  file  is  often  called  a  float  file. 

128.  Saw  file,  Fig.  82,  has  teeth  cut  on  its  edges  to  stand 
tough  steel.  Very  useful  in  machine  work  where  strong 
edge  is  necessary.  Made  in  both  regular  taper  and  slim  taper. 
Lengths  3"  to  10". 


c 


FIG.  82. 


Three-square  file  is  taper,  double  cut,  sharp  corners;  used 
for  acute  internal  angles.  Bastard  is  most  used;  2d  cut  and 
smooth  have  wide  use  for  backing  off  taps  and  work  of  that 
class.  Sometimes  made  blunt.  Lengths  3"  to  14". 


FIG.  83. 


Knife  file,  Fig.  83,  is  taper  and  double  cut,  of  regular  cuts. 
Resembles  a  knife  blade;  is  useful  for  niches,  inner  angles,  etc, 
Also  made  blunt.  Lengths  3"  to  10". 


52 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


129.  Round  file,  Fig.  84,  is  made  taper.  Bastard  cut  is 
useful;  for  enlarging  round  holes  and  shaping  concave  work, 
etc.  It  is  made  in  slim  and  blunt  shapes  and  used  for  heavy 
work.  Lengths  4*  to  16". 


FIG.  84. 

Half-round  file,  Fig.  85,  is  taper  in  shape  and  the  half-round 
side  is  curved  in  length.  Convex  side  is  useful  in  shaping  con- 
cave work.  Flat  side  may  be  used  for  ordinary  filing;  edges 
useful  in  filing  acute  angles.  Also  made  in  slim  and  blunt 
shapes.  Lengths  4"  to  16". 


Fia.  85. 


130.  Bent  rifHer,  Fig.  86,  is  used  in  shaping  and  finishing 
irregular  shaped  cavities. 


FIG.  86. 

Half-round  rasp,  Fig.  87,  is  a  useful  file  for  wood.    Lengths 
8"  to  14". 


FIG.  87. 


Lead  float  is  single  cut  or  float.  Teeth  are  cut  nearly 
straight  across  and  very  open,  both  of  which  are  essential  for 
lead  or  babbitt. 

Special  files  for  brass,  bronze,  copper,  and  other  soft  metals 
are  obtainable  with  teeth  cut  more  open  and  of  a  different 


FILING.  53 

angle  than  regular  files.      They  are  less  liable  to  clog  and  are 
preferred  to  the  regular  files  for  these  metals. 

131.  Wood  handles  for  files  are  obtainable  in  different  sizes. 
To  fit  handle  to  small  file,  drill  hole  axially  true  and  of  size 
about  equal  to  diameter  of -tang  at  middle,  then  drive  handle 
carefully  on  to  file.  To  fit  handle  to  large  file,  heat  tang  of 
worn-out  file  of  same  size  and  burn  out  hole  in  handle  and  drive 
handle  on  to  tang  nearly  to  shoulder. 


FIG.  88. 

132.  File   card,  Fig.  88,  is  used  to  clean   files  to   avoid 
clogging  and  scratching  the  work.     Brush  across  the  file  in 
direction  of  its  teeth. 

133.  Lubricant  for  filing.  —  Oil  or  chalk  rubbed  on  the  file 
will  make  it  cut  steel  or  wrought  iron  smoother  but  slower. 
Never  use  oil  when  filing  cast  iron  or  brass.      Oil  may  be 
removed  from  a  file  by  rubbing  freely  with  chalk,  then  brush- 
ing off  with  a  file  cord. 

134.  Pinning.  —  In    filing    steel,    wrought    iron,   or    any 
tenacious  metal,  a  file  is  likely  to  "  pin,"  that  is,  have  filings 
wedge  between  the  teeth.     It  is  prevented  to  some  extent  by 
filling  the  spaces  between  the  teeth  with  chalk  or  oil  or  both. 
To  remove  filings  that  a  file  card  fails  to  dislodge  use  a  thin 
piece  of  soft  iron  (A,  Fig.  88),  never  hard  steel. 

135.  The  proper  care  of  a  file.  —  Files  should  be  kept  in 
special  compartments  to  avoid  injuring  their  teeth. 

HAND  AND  MACHINE  FILING. 

136.  Height  of  work.  —  For  general  purposes,  the  top  vise 
jaws  should  be  level  with  elbow.     Very  heavy  filing  is  done 
more  easily  with  work  lower,  while  for  very  light  filing  it 
should  be  higher. 


54 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


FIG.  89.  —  CORRECT  POSITION  FOR  FILING. 


137.   For   correct   position  of    feet   and   body  and   hands. 

Fig.  89.  —  Throw  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  file  for 
heavy  filing.  On  light  filing,  use  pressure  of  the  arms  alone. 
A  file  will  cut  only  on  the  forward  stroke;  relieve  pressure  on 
return  stroke. 


FILING. 


55 


ftOOD 

FIG.  90.  —  CORRECT  POSITION  OF  HANDS  FOR  FILING. 


FIG.  91.  —  INCORRECT  POSITION  OF  HANDS  FOR  FILING. 


FIG.  92.  — *  CORRECT  POSITION  OF  HANDS  FOR  LIGHT  FILING. 


56 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


138.  To  grasp  file  in  cross  filing.  —  The  student    should 
held  file  as  in  Fig.  90.  Avoid  holding  as  in  Fig.  91,  as  it  requires 
twisting  the  forearm,  making  it  difficult  to  file  a  flat  surface. 
The  left  hand  may  be  used  as  in  Figs.  90  and  92,  alternately 
to  rest  hand  and  increase  or  decrease  pressure. 

139.  To  select  a  file  is  the  most  important  thing  connected 
with  filing.     Use  bastard  and  second  cut  for  ordinary  filing; 
smooth  or  dead  smooth  to  remove  only  a  small  amount  of 
stock  and  then  only  when  a  very  fine  finish  is  desired. 

140.  Try  squares  are  used  to  establish  right  (90°)  angles, 
to  test  squareness,  to  lay  out  work,  and  to  test  flatness  of 
surfaces. 

141.  To  test  flatness  of  surfaces,  hold  square  A  and  block 
B  at  height  of  eyes,  as  in  Fig.  93,  with  blade  C  slightly  inclined 


FIG.  93.  —  TESTING  SURFACE  OF  BLOCK. 


toward  you,  and  the  light  line  between  blade  and  surface 
will  indicate  truth  or  error.  To  produce  true  plane,  test 
crosswise,  lengthwise,  and  diagonally. 

Attention.  —  For  work  of  great  refinement,  use  beveled  edge 
square.  It  is  held  perpendicular  to  the  work  as  at  D,  Fig.  93, 
and  gives  a  line  contact. 


FILING. 


57 


142.  To  test  squareness,  hold  square  A  and  block  B  at 
height  of  eyes,  as  in  Fig.  94.  Press  beam  C  hard  against  trued 
surface  with  blade  D  slightly  inclined  toward  you,  then  lower 
blade  to  lightly  touch  surface  and  light  line  will  indicate  truth 
or  error. 


BEAM 


FIG.  94.  —  TESTING  SQUARENESS  WITH  TRY  SQUARE. 

143.  To  lay  out  work.  —  Hold  beam  of  square  against 
working  surface  and  use  blade  to  guide  scriber. 


FIG.  95.     SCHEDULE  DRAWING  OF  FILING  PLANE  SURFACES. 

144.   To  file  and  to  square  plane  (flat)  surf  aces,' Fig.  95. 


58 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 
ROUGHING.  FINISHING. 


Stock  —  Iron  Casting,  Planed. 


Tools  — 10"  or  12"  Hand  Bastard  and 
8"  or  10"  Hand  Smooth  Files. 


Hold  block  in  vise  with  copper 
jaws.  Brighten  upper  portions  of 
sides,  (1)  and  (3),  with  8"  or  10" 
hand  smooth  file.  Coat  with  cop- 
per sulphate  and  draw  lines  -fa" 
from  top  with  bench  surface  gage 
on  leveling  plate,  (3)  (4). 

Bevel  long  edges  to  these  lines 
about  45°,  (5)  and  (6)  hand 
smooth  file,  as  at  (A)  and  (A'). 

To  rough  file,  place  work  cross- 
wise in  vise  and  file  surface  (7)  to 


FIG.  96.  —  FIRST  ROUGHING  CUT. 

lines  with  10"  or  12"  hand  bas- 
tard, with  long  strokes  and  heavy 
pressure,  as  follows:  Begin  as  at 
D,  Fig.  96,  and  file  diagonally  over 


whole  surface  to  E  and  same  from 
jy  to  W,  Fig.  97.  Test  work 
crosswise  and  lengthwise  with 
blade  of  square  used  as  straight 
edge  (see  Fig.  93). 

To  finish  file,  place  work 
lengthwise  in  vise,  file  lengthwise 
until  work  is  flat  crosswise  and  un- 
til rough  file  marks  are  erased  (8). 
Test  lengthwise  and  chalk  two 
marks,  one  each  side  of  high  spot. 
Place  work  in  vise  with  high  spot 


D1 


FIG.  97.  —  SECOND  ROUGHING  CUT. 

toward  fixed  jaw.  With  short 
strokes  file  with  left  hand  press- 
ing file  directly  over  high  spot 
until  straight  lengthwise.  Test 


FILING. 


59 


across  corners  for  wind.  File 
high  corners  to  take  out  wind. 

Note.  —  To  finish,  move  file 
straight  ahead  so  that  when  sur- 
face is  flat  file  marks  will  lie 
lengthwise  of  block  and  be  straight 
and  parallel. 

Stamp  name  (initials)  with  steel 
stamp  in  center  of  bottom  (9)  as 
shown  at  (10). 

To  file  (11)  square  with  (8), 
Fig.  95.  Test  (11)  with  square  and 


straight  edge  and  file  to  finish  as 
follows:  file  high  side  lengthwise 
only.  Test  as  in  Fig.  94  and  chalk 
a  line  at  the  low  spot  and  correct 
error.  To  finish,  see  Note  above. 
To  file  (12)  square  with  (8)  and 
(11).  Test  (12)  with  (8)  and  (11). 
Place  work  in  vise  with  high 
corner  toward  fixed  jaw.  Press 
file  hard  and  file  (12)  with  short 
strokes  lengthwise  only.  To  finish, 
see  Note  above. 


Attention.  —  If  a   surface    rounds  perceptibly,   increase   pressure 
and  shorten  strokes. 

145.  Position  of  left 
hand  to  file  out  tool 
marks  on  broad  sur- 
faces (Fig.  98).— The 
fingers  of  left  hand 
afford  all  the  pressure 
necessary  for  light  filing. 


FIG.  98.  —  FILING  OUT  TOOL  MARKS. 


FIG.  99. 

146.  Bending  a  file  to  give  convexity,  Fig.  99.  — To  avoid 
rounding  a  surface,  a  thin  file  may  be  bent  upward. 


60 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


FIG.  100. : —  FILING  LARGE  SURFACE. 

147.  Surface  file  holder,  Fig.  100,  is  used  for  filing  large 
surfaces,  which  in  addition  to  holding  the  file  securely  gives 
more  or  less  convexity  to  cutting  side. 


FIG.  101.  —  TILTING  FILE  TO  REMOVE  STOCK  RAPIDLY. 

148.  To  remove  rapidly  a  large  amount  of  stock  on  work  of 
small  area,  Fig.  101.  Place  stock  A  in  vise  B  close  to  jaws  to 
lessen  tendency  to  chatter,  and  then  tilt  file  first  as  at  C,  then 
as  at  D,  then  as  at  E. 


FILE 
I 


A      WORK     D 


WORK 


FIG.  102.  —  USING  SAFE  EDGE  FILE 
IN  FILING  PLANE  SURFACE. 


FIG.   103.  —  CANTING  HALF-ROUND 
FILE  TO  PRODUCE  SHARP  CORNER. 


149.  Use  of  safe  edge,  Fig.  102,  to  file  A  and  not  B,  and  to 
file  C  and  not  D.  B  and  D  are  the  safe  edges.  This  will  not 
produce  a  perfectly  sharp  corner. 


FILING. 


61 


150.  To  produce  sharp  corner,  use   a  fine  half-round  file 
slightly  canted  first  as  at  E,  Fig.  103,  then  as  at  F. 

151.  A  safe  round  file  for  bottom  of  circular  groove.  —  Select 
a  round  file  that  will  fit  the  groove  or  a  little  larger,  then  grind 
flats  on  opposite  sides  as  at  A  and  B,  Fig.  104,  until  it  freely 
enters  groove. 


1 


2fe 


FIG.  104.  —  USING  SAFE  EDGE  FILE 
IN  FILING  CONCAVE  SURFACE. 


FIG.  105.  —  USING  SAFE  EDGE  FILE 
FOR  MORTISE  OR  SLOT. 


152.  A  safe  round-edge  file  for  mortise  or  slot,  A,  Fig.  105, 
is  used  to  cut  away  the  walls  between  the  drilled  holes  until 
space  is  large  enough  to  use  flat  file  B  which  has  safe  round 
edges.     May  use   an  ordinary  hand  file  with   edges  ground 
approximately  round. 

Attention.  —  Files  are  obtainable  with  safe  edges,  or  the 
teeth  may  be  ground  off. 

153.  Method  of  holding  file  for  long  holes,  Fig.  106,  when 
impossible  to  use  regular  stroke.     For  filing  either  square  or 
round  holes,  a  file  should  be  as  large  in  cross-section  as  can  be 
freely  used. 


WORK 


FIG.  106.  —  FILING  LONG  HOLE  WITH 
ROUND  FILE. 


FIG.  107.  —  FILING  CONCAVE 
SURFACES  WITH  HALF- 
ROUND  FILE. 


154  Method  of  filing  concave  surfaces.  —  Use  a  half-round 
file  as  A,  Fig.  107.     It  should  be  given  a  sweep  sideways  on 


62 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


the  forward  stroke  from  B  to  C  by  the  action  of  the  wrist. 
After  a  few  strokes,  the  sweep  should  be  reversed  to  carry  it 
from  C  to  B,  causing  file  marks  to  cross  and  recross. 


FIG.  108.  —  DRAW-FILING  PLANE  SURFACES  WITH  HAND  FILE. 

155.  Draw-filing  is  used  for  finishing  work  (laying  tool  or 
file  marks  lengthwise).  Hold  file  at  75°  to  80°  from  work 
as  in  Fig.  108,  and  push  file  sidewise,  using  short  strokes; 
relieve  pressure  on  the  return  stroke.  Draw-filing  removes 
very  little  stock. 


FIG.  109.  —  DRAW-FILING  CYLINDRICAL  SURFACES  WITH  MILL  FILE. 


156.  To  draw-file  cylindrical  surfaces,  Fig.  109.  Use  light 
pressure  and  change  angle  slightly  with  each  forward  stroke, 
as  the  contact  is  very  narrow.  Cylindrical  parts  of  machines 
having  a  sliding  movement  are  usually  given  their  final  fitting 
in  this  way. 


FILING. 


63 


157.  Filing  wire.  Freehand  filing,  Fig.  110.  —  To  reduce  a 
piece  of  steel  wire  to  a  point.  Place  block  A  in  vise  B  and  file  a 
V  groove  in  its  top.  Insert  work  C  in  hand  vise  D  and  fasten 
by  screw  E.  Then  rotate  work  toward  self  with  left  hand  and 
the  same  moment  push  the  file  forward  with  the  right  to  pro- 
duce a  circular  surface.  If  the  work  is  to  be  rectangular  or  flat, 
hold  it  at  rest;  if  circular  or  oval  shaped,  it  may  be  partially 
rotated. 


HAND 
VISE 


FIG.  110.  —  FREEHAND  FILING. 


158.    Filing  machine,  Fig.  Ill,  is  used  for  die  making,  metal 
patterns,  templets,  etc. 

Schedule  of  Parts. 


A  —  Column. 

B  —  Countershaft. 

C  —  Crank  shaft. 

D  —  File  frame. 

E  —  File,  operated  vertically 
by  crank  arm,  slotted  to  allow  ad- 
justment of  length  of  stroke. 

F  —  Table;  maybe  set  tilted  or 
horizontal. 

G  —  Work,  cutting  die. 


H  —  Feed  screw,  operated  by 
hand. 

/  —  Adjustable  clamp  for 
holding  work. 

K  —  Hand  wheel  for  adjusting 
length  of  stroke. 

L  —  Treadle  shipper. 

M  —  Air  blast  for  keeping 
work  clear  of  filings. 


Attention.  —  In  figure  111  the  file  cuts  on  downward  stroke.  To 
make  the  cutting  stroke  upward,  the  file  is  reversed  and  the  crank 
pin  moved  to  opposite  end  of  crank  arm. 

This  machine  is  also  used  for  sawing  metal  with  a  hack  saw. 


64 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


FIG.  111.  —  MACHINE  FILING. 


HOW  FILES  ARE  MADE. 

159.  Files  are  made  of  a  special  grade  of  carbon  steel  of 
the  required  cross-section.     The  stock  is  cut  to  the  required 
length,  forged  to  shape,  annealed  and  ground. 

160.  Hand -cut  files.  —  The  teeth  are  cut  with  chisel  as  A, 
Fig.  112,  on  blank  B  which  is  secured  on  a  pewter-faced  anvil. 
The  chisel  is  struck  with  a  drawing  blow  by  a  special  hammer 
which  throws  up  a  ridge  across  surface  as  exaggerated  in 


MANUFACTURING    FILES.  65 

Fig.  112,  after  which  the  chisel  is  moved  until  it  encounters 
the  ridge  just  made,  when  it  is  struck  again,  and  so  on. 


FILE 

MACHINE 

CHISEL 

A 


/ 

FIG.  112.  —  FILE  TEETH  HAND  CUT.       FIG.  113.  —  FILE  TEETH  MACHINE  CUT. 

161.  Machine-cut  files  are  known   as  "  Increment   Cut  " 
files  because  the  rows  of  teeth  are  spaced  progressively  wider 
from  point  to  middle  and  from  heel  to  middle  to  prevent 
chattering.     Fig.  113  shows  chisel  A,  driven. by  power,  and 
file  blank  B  fed  along  for  each  tooth  in  the  direction  of  arrow. 
The  majority  of  files  used  are  machine  cut. 

162.  To  harden  files.  —  The  teeth  of  the  file  are  covered 
with  a  coating  of  paste  to  protect  the  fine  points  from  injury 
in  heating. 

After  paste  is  dry,  the  file  is  heated  in  a  lead  bath  to  a  red 
heat,  then  dipped  in  a  cooling  bath  which  has  a  temperature 
that  will  give  proper  degree  of  hardness.  If  a  file  warps  in 
cooling,  it  is  forced  back  to  a  straight  line  before  it  is  cold  and 
cold  water  poured  on  what  was  the  concave  side.  The  tang  is 
annealed  to  prevent  breaking,  the  teeth  cleaned,  and  file  is 
ready  for  use. 


CHAPTER   V. 

SCRAPERS,  SCRAPING  AND  STANDARD  SURFACE  PLATES. 
POLISHING. 

SCRAPERS,  SCRAPING  AND   STANDARD  SURFACE  PLATES. 

163.  Uses  of  scraping.  —  Scraping  is  a  process  of  cutting 
down  the  high  places  to  produce  better  bearing  surfaces 
between  fitted  parts  of  machinery;  it  is  used  to  true  up  and 
fit  the  sliding  surfaces  and  bearings  of  the  better  class  of 
machines  and  engines,  and  has  superseded  the  process  of 
grinding  surfaces  together  with  emery  and  oil. 

Tools  used  in  scraping  are  a  scraper,  fine  Arkansas  or  man- 
ufactured oil  stone  and  a  standard  surface  plate. 


-    12"ro   I51-  -  —      -* 

T 

TO 

4" 
f*1 

SIDE    VIEW 

EDGE  VIEW 
FIG.  114.  —  FLAT  SCRAPER  FOR  PLANE  SURFACES. 

164.  Flat  scraper,  Fig.  114,  is  the  most  effective  when  much 
scraping  has  to  be  done.     It  must  be  "  glass  hard." 

165.  To  sharpen  scraper.  —  Grind  sides  and  edges  smooth 
and  end  very  slightly  rounded  in  length.     Then  use  oil  stone,  as 
in  Fig.  115.     Push  scraper  A  forward  and  backward  the  length 
of  oil  stone  B  in  direction  of  arrows  C  and  D,  then  turn  scraper 
around  and  repeat  operation.     To  finish,  the  scraper  is  laid 
flat  on  stone  and  with  both  hands  it  is  moved  along  stone  in 
the  direction  of  arrows  C  and  D,  Fig.  116,  and  repeated  on 
other  side.     The  width  of  cut  is  important;  for  small  work 
use  a  width  from  J"  to  §".     For  large  work  a  greater  width  is 
desirable,  and  may  be  obtained  by  sharpening  end  of  scraper 


FLAT    SCRAPER. 


67 


as  in  Fig.  117,  moving  scraper  forward  and  backward  in  direc- 
tion of  arrows  C  and  D. 


FIG.  115.  —  OIL-STONING  END  OF  SCRAPER. 


FIG.  116.  —  OIL-STONING  SIDE  OF 
SCRAPER. 


FIG.  117.  —  OIL-STONING  SCRAPER 
TO  PRODUCE  WIDE  CUTTING 
EDGE. 


166.  A  standard  surface  plate  has  the  same  relation  to  plane 
surfaces  as  a  standard  gage  has  to  sizes.  Surface  plates,  Fig. 
118,  are  made  from  hard,  close-grained  cast  iron  and  of  a  form 
that  will  retain  their  shape  and  with  bearing  points  at  A,  B,  C. 


68 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


FIG.  118.  —  STANDARD  SURFACE  PLATES  FOR  TESTING  PLANE  SURFACES. 


167.  Marking.  —  To   more   clearly  indicate  by   means   of 
bright  spots  where  the  testing  plate  bears  on  the  work,  and 
in  order  to  know  where  to  scrape,  marking  is  used  consisting 
of  red  lead  or,  preferably,  of  Venetian  red  mixed  with  lard 
or  machine  oil   to  the  consistency  of   putty.     To  use,  wipe 
oil,  grit,  and   dust,  with   cotton  waste   and   hand,  or   hand 
alone,  from  both  work  and  plate,  apply  marking  sparingly 
with  the  fingers,   and  spread  with  palm  of  hand  into   an 
extremely  thin  coating.     If  applied  too  thickly  false  bearings 
will  result. 

168.  To  scrape  plane  (flat)  surfaces,  Fig.  119. 


-D 


FIG.  119. 


SCRAPING. 


69 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 
Stock  —  Iron  Casting,  Planed.  Tool  —  Flat  Scraper. 


Plane  all  over  and  file  to  re- 
move burrs.  Secure  work  A  to 
bench  B  as  at  C  and  D,  and  scrape 
lightly  before  applying  to  stand- 
ard surface  plate.  Push  scraper 
E  forward  the  width  of  its  cut 
each  time.  Scrape  one-third  of 
the  surface  in  direction  of  arrow 
F,  another  third  in  direction  of 
arrow  G,  and  the  remainder  in 
direction  of  arrow  H,  when  work 
will  appear  as  shown.  Next  ap- 
ply marking  to  plate,  and  then 
move  work  on  plate  using  light 
pressure  and  with  a  circular  mo- 
tion, principally  to  ward  outer  edge 
of  standard  plate,  to  make  the 
wear  on  latter  even  the  standard 
plate  is  applied  to  large  work. 

Remove  work  to  bench,  when 
the  high  places  oh  its  surface 
will  be  shown  by  dark  marks 
of  marking,  with  bright  spot  in 
center.  First  scrape  off  all  high 
places  in  direction  of  arrow  F, 
then  with  a  clean  hand  wipe 
work  clean  of  grit,  and  also 
smooth  the  marking  on  plate, 


with  or  without  additional  mark- 
ing as  one  application  may  last 
for  a  number  of  tests,  and  apply 
work  to  standard  plate  again, 
then  scrape  high  places  in  direc- 
tion of  arrow  G.  Proceed  in  this 
manner  until  bearings  have  in- 
creased considerably,  then  after 
each  test  scrape  one-half  spots 
off  in  direction  of  arrow  F,  leav- 
ing alternate  spots  to  be  scraped 
later  in  direction  of  arrow  G. 
Proceed  until  bearing  marks  are 
numerous,  then  after  each  test- 
ing, scrape  one-third  of  high  spots 
from  each  direction.  Continue 
latter  method  until  the  bearing 
marks  approach  closely  and  are 
uniformly  distributed. 

Attention.  —  Toward  the  last 
use  very  little  marking,  if  any. 
Scrape  at  an  angle  to  last  course 
to  prevent  chattering  and  also  to 
give  good  appearance.  The  bear- 
ing points  on  machine  surfaces 
should  be  uniformly  distributed, 
but  need  not  be  numerous  as 
on  a  standard  surface  plate. 


169.  Ornamental  block  scraping  is  an  effective  finish  pro- 
duced by  carefully  making  length  of  cut  about  equal  to  its 
width,  the  last  few  times  over  the  surface. 

The  surface  may  be  finished  by  frosting  or  flowering  with  a 
flat  or  a  hook-shaped  scraper  by  drawing  it  forward. 


70  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


FIG.  120.  —  SCRAPED  STRAIGHT  EDGE. 

170.  To  scrape  V-ways  of  a  machine,  use  a  standard  straight 
edge,  Fig.  120.     It  is  of  a  form  designed  to  remain  straight; 
its  edge  is  broad  and  scraped  to  a  true  surface. 

171.  To  originate  standard  surface  plates  or  straight  edges. 
-  In  the  absence  of  any  standard,  make  three  of  a  kind  and 

test  them  with  each  other  in  binary  combinations,  as  the  first 
to  the  second,  the  third  to  the  second,  the  third  to  the  first, 
to  detect  and  enable  errors  to  be  corrected.  An  error  com- 
mon to  all  three  cannot  escape  notice  by  this  process  if  suc- 
cessively repeated. 

172.  To  scrape  without  a  standard.  —  Machine  both  parts 
as  true  as  possible  and  use  one  as  a  standard  to  scrape  the 
other,  and  then  vice  versa.     This  method  will  not  give  per- 
fectly  true   surfaces,    but   with    care    good   results    may   be 
obtained. 

173.  Bedding  to  mark  work  for  scraping  or  riling.  —  Plane 
surface  of  pillow  blocks,  connecting  rod  brasses,  etc.,  often 
have  to  be  fitted  where  they  cannot  be  moved  over  their 
seats.     Coat   one   part   with   marking   and  place  it   on   the 
surface  to  which  it  is  to  be  fitted,  then  give  it  a  light,  sharp 
blow  with  hammer,  which  will  indicate  the  high  spots  by  the 
adhesion  of  the  marking. 

174.  Scraping  bronze  or  Babbitt  bearings.  —  Use  spindle  as  a 
standard  for  fitting,  coat  it  with  marking,  and  revolve  it  in  the 
bearing.     Scrape  high  spots  with  scraper  AB,  Fig.  121,  mov- 
ing it  diagonally  with  a  sweeping  motion  to  secure  a  shearing 
cut. 


POLISHING. 


71 


HALF  ROUND 
SCRAPER 

A 


FIG.  121.  —  SCRAPING  BRONZE  OR  BABBITT  BEARINGS. 

175.   Scrapers  flat  or  half-round  may  be  made  from 
files  by  grinding  off  the  teeth  and  oil-stoning  edges. 


old 


POLISHING. 

176.  Metal  is  polished  by  rubbing  with  a  natural  abrasive, 
as  emery  or  corundum,  or  by  a  manufactured  abrasive,  as 
alundum  or  carborundum;  also  with  crocus,  rottenstone,  etc. 
Abrasives  are  used  in  various  forms,  as  loose,  mixed  with  oil, 
glued  to  cloth,  paper,  leather,  canvas,  etc. 

Emery  is  a  mineral  consisting  of  corundum  and  protoxide 
of  iron  and  it  is  next  to  corundum  in  hardness. 

Corundum  is  a  mineral  composed  chiefly  of  crystallized 
alumina,  next  to  the  diamond  in  hardness. 

Alundum  is  made  by  subjecting  bauxite  (an  amorphous 
hydrate  of  aluminium)  to  a  temperature  estimated  between 
6000°  and  7000°  F.  in  electric  furnaces. 

Carborundum  is  made  by  subjecting  coke  (carbon)  and 
sand  (silica)  to  a  temperature  estimated  between  6000°  and 
7000°  F.  in  electric  furnaces. 


72 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


177.  Number  of  emery.  —  Emery  and  other  abrasives  are 
crushed  and  ground  from  the  rock  or  ingot,  then  sifted  through 
sieves.     The  number  is  derived  from  the  number  of  meshes 
per  inch  in  the  wire  or  silk  sieve  through  which  they  are  sifted. 
For  example,  emery  that  will  pass  through  a  sieve  having 
60  meshes  to  the  inch  and  over  one  having  70  meshes,  is  called 
No.  60.     The  grains  (and  similarly  emery  wheels)  are  num- 
bered 10,  12,  16,  20,  24,  30,  36,  .46,  54,  60,  70,  80,  90,  100,  120, 
150,  180,  200,  and  flour. 

Flour  of  emery  is  used  in  five  grades,  F,  FF,  FFF,  FFFF, 
and  SF,  which  are  graded  in  flowing  water. 

178.  Table  of  the  numbers  of  emery  cloth  and  sandpaper 
compared. 


Numbers  of  Emery 
Cloth  or  Paper. 

Numbers  of  Sand- 
paper. 

46 

3 

54 

2i 

60 

2 

70 

1* 

80 

1 

90 

* 

100 

0 

120 

00 

150 

Flour,  F,  FF,  FFF 

000 

179.  Crocus  (an  oxide  of  iron)  is  formed  into  bricks  or 
cakes  of  one  grade,  also  glued  to  cloth.     It  may  be  used  on 
any   metal,   especially   brass,   where   a   very  high   polish   is 
desired. 

180.  Rottenstone,  a  mineral  of   grayish  color,   consisting 
chiefly  of  alumina.     It  is  used  in  powdered  form  for  smoothing 
machine  work. 

181.  Polishing.  —  Work  to  be  polished  is  usually  finished 
by  filing  before  applying  emery  cloth.     Polishing  reduces  the 
size  of  work  to  some  extent,  which,  though  small,  must  be 
allowed  for  when  exact  dimensions  are  necessary.     Emery 
paper  is  used  on  soft  materials  but  rarely  on  iron  or  steel. 


POLISHING.  73 

182.  Order   of  applying  emery  cloth. —  For  large   work, 
roughly  filed,  apply^coarse  emery  cloth,  46  or  54,  and  as  many 
of  the  successively  finer  grades,  60,  90,   120,  and  flour,  as  are 
necessary  to  obtain  the  desired  polish. 

If  the  work  is  carefully  filed,  or  preferably,  draw-filed,  a  good 
polish  may  be  obtained  with  60  and  90  emery  cloth.  An  effec- 
tive polish  may  be  given  to  work  very  carefully  filed,  with  90 
alone;  and  a  brilliant  polish  by  continuing  with  120  and  flour. 

First  apply  the  coarser  cloth  with  hard,  steady  pressure 
until  all  tool  or  file  marks  are  removed.  Then  apply  the  next 
finer  cloth  until  evidence  of  the  former  coarse  grade  is  removed, 
and  so  on,  with  successively  finer  grades. of  emery  cloth  until 
the  desired  polish  is  obtained.  Use  lard  oil  sparingly  on  the 
emery  cloth  or  work,  distributing  it  with  the  fingers. 

Attention.  —  If  on  using  the  first  finer  grade  of  emery  cloth 
the  surface  of  the  work  shows  deep  scratches,  tool  marks  or 
large  pores,  return  at  once  to  the  coarser  grade. 

183.  To  polish  flat  surfaces  on  thin  work.     Fig.  122.  —  Hold 
block  of  hardwood  or  metal  A  in  vise  B  and  clamp  work  C  to 
it  with  clamp  D.     Moisten  a  strip  of  emery  cloth  with  lard  oil 
and  hold  tightly  under  file  F.     Press  hard,  and  rub  back  and 


FIG.  122.  —  POLISHING  FLAT  SURFACE  IN  VISE. 

forth  with  short  strokes,  being  careful  not  to  round  corners 
of  work.  Polish  vise  work  lengthwise  so  that  all  lines  will 
lie  parallel.  Polishing  destroys  the  truth  of  work  to  some 


74 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


extent;  therefore  it  is  best  to  finish  work  by  cross  or  draw- 
filing  so  that  excessive  polishing  will  be  unnecessary. 

184.  To  polish  a  bolt  head  or  nut.  —  Place  finished  bolt  A, 
Fig.  123,  in  vise  B  between  copper  jaws  C,  C'  with  one  of  the 
flats  horizontal.  File  carefully  and  sparingly  with  an  8"  or 


FIG.  123.  —  POLISHING  FLATS  or  BOLT  HEAD  OR  NUT  IN  VISE. 

10"  hand  smooth  file.  Moisten -a  strip  of  No.  90  emery 
cloth  with  oil  and  hold  under  file  E.  Hold  file  and  emery 
cloth  firmly;  apply  considerable  pressure  forward  and  back- 
ward; use  short  strokes. 

185.  To  polish  work  of  curved  outline  in  a  vise.  —  For 
narrow  concave  surfaces,  hold  emery  cloth  under  a  half-round 
file,  and  move  it  back  and  forth,  following  the  curve.     Polish 
long  grooves  lengthwise.     For  convex  surfaces,   the  emery 
cloth  is  held  under  a  flat  file  and  applied  in  direction  of  length 
of  work. 

186.  To  polish  large  plane  or  flat  surfaces,  fasten  emery 
cloth  to  a  block  of  wood. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

ANNEALING,    HARDENING,   AND  TEMPERING    CARBON  STEEL. 

HIGH-SPEED  STEEL.     CASE  HARDENING.    STRAIGHTENING 

HARDENED  AND  TEMPERED  TOOLS.    TESTING 

HARDNESS  WITH  SCLEROSCOPE. 

ANNEALING,  HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING  CARBON 

STEEL. 

187.  Annealing,  hardening  and  tempering  carbon  or  tool 
steel.  —  In  the  preparation  of  carbon  steel  for  cutting  tools 
and  machine  parts,  three  important  operations  are  performed, 
annealing,  hardening,  and  tempering. 

If  carbon  steel  is  heated  to  clear  red  and  allowed  to  cool 
slowly,  it  becomes  soft  or  annealed;  and  if  cooled  suddenly, 
it  becomes  hard  and  brittle;  if  hardened  steel  is  reheated 
slightly,  then  cooled,  it  becomes  tempered,  that  is,  hard, 
elastic,  and  tough. 

Steel  is  hardened  and  tempered  to  enable  it  to  cut  hard  sub- 
stances, to  increase  its  elasticity,  to  strengthen  it,  and  to  resist 
wear  and  abrasion. 

188.  Annealing,  softens  and  relieves  the  internal  strains 
of   steel  by  slow  cooling.     The  process  of   making   carbon 
steel  leaves  it  hard;  to  be  machined,  it  must  be  annealed. 

189.  To  anneal  carbon  steel,  as  stock  for  taps,  dies,  cutters, 
etc.,  heat  slowly  and  uniformly  to  a  clear  red  and  then  bury 
in  ashes,  lime,  or  charcoal.     Unfinished  tools,  as  lathe  and 
planer  tools,  need  not  be  annealed. 

190.  Water  annealing.  —  To  soften  a  piece  of  carbon  or 
tool  steel  quickly,  as  a  dead  center  of  a  lathe,  heat  the  hard- 
ened portion  to  a  clear  red  and  hold  it  in  a  dark  place  until 
black,  then  plunge  into  water. 

191.  Commercial  annealed  carbon  or  tool  steel  in  bars  or 
other  forms  may  be  obtained  at  a  slight  increase  in  price. 

75 


76  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

192.  Annealed  iron  castings  are  used  to  some  extent,  as  they 
may  be  economically  machined. 

193.  To  anneal  copper,  bronze,  and  brass.  —  Heat  to  a  dull 
red  and  plunge  quickly  into  water  or  allow  to  cool  in  the  air. 

194.  Heat  effects  in  the  process  of  hardening  carbon  steel.  — 
Dark  red  or  black  heat:  will  not  harden;  grain  remains  same 

as  in  bar. 

Dull  red  or  dark  cherry:  will  harden  slightly;  grain  becomes 
closer  than  in  bar. 

Clear  red  or  bright  cherry:  will  harden  properly;  grain 
becomes  fine  and  close. 

Bright  red  or  orange,  yellow  or  lemon :  will  harden,  but  causes 
scaling  and  injury  to  steel;  grain  becomes  open  and  somewhat 
coarse. 

White  heat:  will  burn  and  completely  ruin  steel;  grain 
becomes  very  open  and  coarse. 

195.  To  harden  carbon  steel,  heat  to  a  clear  red  and  cool 
suddenly.     The  quicker  the  extraction  of  heat,  the  harder 
the  steel  becomes. 

196.  File  test  for  hardness.  —  If  a  file  will  not  cut  into  the 
steel,  but  slides  over  it,  the  steel  is  hardened  "  glass  "  hard. 
If  the  file  readily  cuts  the  steel,  it  is  too  soft,  and  the  hard- 
ening process  must  be  repeated.     See  Scleroscope,  §  244. 

Attention.  —  Repeated  rehardening  of  finished  tools,  pieces 
with  thick  and  thin  parts,  will  often  cause  cracks. 

197.  Use  of  clay  to  avoid  hardening  portions  of  articles.— 
The  walls  of  holes  plugged  with  clay  will  not  harden.     Por- 
tions of  articles  or  tools  bandaged  with  a  layer  of  clay  and 
sheet  metal  will  not  harden. 

198.  To  temper  steel. —  Heat  hardened  steel  slowly.     The 
higher  the  temperature  is  carried  the  greater  the  reduction  of 
hardness.    Cool  piece  suddenly  by  quenching  to  check  temper 
at  desired  points  indicated  by  color  test  or  file  test. 

199.  The  color  test  for  hardness. —  Brighten  the  surface  of 
piece  to  be  tempered   and   heat   slowly.      Colors  indicating 
different  temperatures  will  appear  on  the  brightened  surface 
of  metal.      When  the  desired  color  appears,  check  temper. 


HARDENING    AND    TEMPERING.  77 

These  colors  begin  with  a  pale  yellow  (430°  F.)  and  continue 
through  shades  of  straw,  purple,  and  blue  to  a  gray  or  black 
(about  650°  F.)  when  all  hardness  will  have  left  the  metal. 
The  color  test  is  generally  used  when  tempering  at  the  open 
forge  fire.  Some  one  color  within  the  range  from  a  pale 
yellow  (430°  F.  to  a  light  blue  (630°  F.)  is  suitable  for 
any  purpose  for  which  hardened  steel  or  tools  need  tem- 
pering. See  Tempering  table,  p.  89. 

To  temper  small  polished  articles  uniformly.  —  Heat  sand  to 
the  desired  temperature  in  an  iron  box,  place  articles  in  it, 
and  when  the  desired  color  is  obtained,  remove  and  cool  in  oil, 
water,  or  in  vaseline  to  improve  the  coloring. 

Attention.  —  The  color  test  is  not  necessarily  a  test  of 
hardness.  Unless  a  piece  of  carbon  steel  is  known,  to  be 
hardened,  drawing  the  piece  until  the  desired  color  appears 
indicates  nothing  except  that  it  has  been  heated  to  a  certain 
temperature,  for  colors  can  be  obtained  on  a  soft  piece  of  car- 
bon steel  as  readily  as  on  a  hardened  piece,  and  on  machine 
steel,  wrought  iron,  or  cast  iron. 

200.  The  thermometer  test  for  hardness  consists  in  drawing 
the  temper  in  a  bath  of  oil  or  tallow  which  is  raised  to  the 
proper  temperature  gaged  by  a  thermometer.     The  thermom- 
eter test  is   more  reliable  than  the   color  test,  and  is  used 
where   large  quantities  of    similar  work   are    hardened  and 
tempered. 

201.  File   test   for  temper.  —  A   piece   of   hardened    steel 
tempered  until  a  dead  smooth  file  will  bite  will  have  a  tem- 
per equivalent  to  a  dark  straw.     See  Scleroscope,  §  244. 

202.  Forge  fire.  —  Use  charcoal  for  fuel,  or  coke,  or  black- 
smith's  coal  with  all  the  impurities  burned  out.     "  Green 
coal  "  is  injurious  to  steel.     To  harden  a  chisel,  lathe  or  planer 
tool  use  open  fire.     For  mandrels,  arbors,  taps,  reamers,  and 
drills,  which  must  be  heated  evenly  throughout,  take  away 
front  of  a  well-built-up  coal  fire,  leaving  a  bed  and  arch  which 
will  project  the  heat  from  all  sides  onto  the  steel. 

203.  Muffle  to  prevent  flames  from  striking  steel  and  decar- 
bonizing and  injuring  its  surface.     Make  a  muffle  by  placing  a 


78  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE    WORK. 

cap  on  the  end  of  a  piece  of  iron  pipe  of  a  diameter  that  will 
give  plenty  of  room  to  accommodate  work. 

204.  Gas  furnaces  produce  intenst  heat  with  little  or  no 
oxidation.     Some   are   provided   with    muffles   which   insure 
even  heat,   protect  the  work  from  the  flame,  and  prevent 
decarbonizing   the   surface   of   the   steel.     Gas   and   air   are 
forced  into  furnace.     The  supply  valves  control  the  degrees 
of  heat. 

205.  Use  hot  lead  baths  for  heating  drills,  reamers,  knife 
blades,  files,  etc.,  to  give  an  even  and  desired  heat.     Heat 
the  lead  in  a  graphite  crucible  on  a  forge  fire,  or  preferably, 
in  an  iron  pot  in  a  special  gas  furnace.     A  piece  of  cyanide 
of  potassium  melted  in  the  hot  lead  will  prevent  the  lead 
sticking  and  will  clean  the  steel. 

206.  Electric  furnace.  —  There  are  two   classes   of  electric 
hardening  furnaces, — those  having  the  receptacle  heated  by 
electrodes,  and  those  having  the  receptacle  wound  with  plati- 
num, nickel  or  ferro-nickel  resistance  heating  wire.      Desired 
temperatures  are  easy  to  attain  and  regulate  for  hardening. 

207.  Flux  of  salt  and  cyanide  of  potassium,   or  an  atmos- 
phere of  purified  gas,  is  often  used  to  heat  mainsprings,  taps, 
and  drills.   Cyanide  cleans  the  steel  and  prepares  it  for  tem- 
pering. 

208.  Cooling  baths  are  as  essential  as  the  proper  heating  of 
steel.     Cooling  tanks  should  be  provided  with  appliances  to 
keep  the  cooling  liquid  at  an  even  temperature  throughout. 
The  most  common  method  is  to  cool  in  a  large  tank  of  cold 
water. 

Brine,  composed  of  salt  and  water,  is  used  in  cases  where  ex- 
treme hardness  is  required  or  where  the  steel  does  not  harden 
satisfactorily  in  water. 

Lard  or  sperm  oil  baths  are  used  for  tools  that  do  not 
require  extreme  hardness,  as  springs  and  work  that  is  liable 
to  crack  if  hardened  in  water.  Carbon  steel  hardened  in  oil 
does  not  become  glass  hard. 

Mercury  is  used  where  it  is  desired  to  make  steel  extremely 
hard.  It  extracts  heat  more  rapidly  than  any  other  bath, 


HARDENING    AND    TEMPERING.  79 

and  is  used  for  small  tools  and  some  kinds  of  surgical  instru- 
ments. 

Special  baths.  —  Among  these  are  boiling  water,  hot  water, 
lukewarm  water,  various  acid  solutions.  A  vessel  of  water 
with  one  or  two  inches  of  oil  on  top  is  an  effective  bath  for 
cooling  planer  knives  and  other  long  thin  tools  to  prevent 
cracking.  They  are  cooled  by  passing  them  down  through 
the  oil  into  the  water. 

Cleansing  baths. —  To  clean  hardened  work  for  polishing, 
such  as  taps,  reamers,  cutters,  etc.,  pass  it  through  the  follow- 
ing baths,  holding  work  in  each  bath  about  two  minutes. 

1.  Solution  of  muriatic  acid  and  water,  I  to  4. 

2.  Water. 

3.  Strong  solution  of  lime-water. 

4.  Water. 

5.  Strong  solution  of  sal-soda. 

6.  Water. 

209.  Points  in  annealing,  hardening,  and  tempering :  — 
Select  stock  for  finished  carbon  tools  large  enough  for  removal 
of  surface,  which  is  decarbonized  as  it  comes  from  the  manu- 
facturer and  will  not  harden.  Consider  the  conditions  for 
hardening,  as  degree  of  hardness  affects  the  temper  of  piece. 
Determine  carbon  percentage  of  steel,  if  possible,  as  a  piece 
of  high-carbon  steel  and  a  piece  of  low-carbon  steel  heated 
to  the  same  temperature  and  cooled  in  the  same  bath,  then 
drawn  to  the  same  color,  will  not  be  of  the  same  temper  or 
degree  of  hardness.  Do  not  over  or  under-heat  steel;  it  will 
not  harden  or  temper  properly,  for  a  very  little  variation  in 
heating  steel  may  give  a  wide  variation  in  results. 

Attention.  —  Do  not  heat  carbon  steel  above  a  light  red 
except  in  the  case  of  some  special  brands,  as  it  will  decarbon- 
ize, or  may  crack  in  hardening.  If  an  unfinished  carbon  steel 
tool,  as  a  chisel,  lathe  or  planer  tool,  is  overheated,  reforging 
is  the  only  remedy. 

Heat  and  cool  steel  slowly  and  uniformly  all  over  to  avoid 
warping  and  cracking.  While  being  heated,  frequently 
revolve  work  and  turn  end  for  end  in  fire. 


80 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


To  cool  taps,  reamers,  etc.,  immerse  in  water  endwise. 
Cool  hammers  by  flooding.  Do  not  keep  tools  in  bath  until 
they  are  absolutely  cold,  for  they  may  crack  when  removed. 

Irregularly  shaped  pieces  are  likely  to  warp  and  crack  in 
heating  and  cooling  if  the  thin  part  is  allowed  to  become 
heated  or  cooled  in  advance  of  the  thick  part. 

210.  Unfinished  tools,  as  lathe  and  planer  tools,  chisels, 
center  punches,  scriber,  etc.,  are  usually  hardened  and  tempered 
in  one  heat,  as  follows:  Heat  a  little  more  of  the  tool  than  is 
required  to  be  hardened  and  dip  the  desired  portion  until 
almost  cold,  then  polish  the  surface  and  use  remaining  heat 
to  run  down  and  draw  temper.  In  cases  where  the  remain- 
ing heat  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  correct  temper,  or  where 
the  colors  come  too  slowly,  place  tool  on  a  red-hot  bar  or  in 
flame  over  forge  fire.  Use  a  hot  plate  for  tempering  thin 
pieces  that  are  hardened  outright. 

BLACKSMITHS'  FORGE 


FIG.  124.  —  HEATING  COLD  CHISEL  TO  HARDEN. 


211.   To  harden  and  temper  cold  chisel,  one  heat.  —  Heat 
slowly  to  light  red  in  forge  fire,  as  in  Fig.  124,  about  two  inches 


HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING. 


81 


of  cutting  end,  up  to  A,  Fig.  125.  Quickly  dip  in  water  or 
brine  about  one  inch  up  to  B,  B',  until  almost  cold  or  until 
water  will  not  steam  on  tool. 

Attention.  —  To  test  color  during  heating,  occasionally  hold 
for  a  moment  in  dark  corner  of  forge. 

To  cool  quickly,  move  tool  around  or  back  and  forth,  as 
shown  by  arrows. 


FIG.  125.  —  DIPPING  COLD  CHISEL  TO  HARDEN. 


To  avoid  a  crack  where  hardened  and  unhardened  parts 
join,  move  tool  up  and  down  slightly  while  cooling.  After 
removing  tool  from  water  and  before  polishing  and  tempering, 
quickly  test  with  fine  file  for  hardness.  Tool  should  be  glass 
hard. 

212.  To  temper  cold  chisel,  Fig.  126.  —  Quickly  polish 
one  face  with  polishing  stick  (emery  cloth  tacked  or  grain 
emery  glued  to  stick)  so  that  colors  may  be  seen,  and  temper 
with  heat  in  shank.  Watch  face.  When  point  is  dark  blue, 
immerse  whole  chisel  in  water  to  fix  or  arrest  temper.  Test 
hardness  with  fine  file.  If  tempering  heat  is  too  high,  the 
colors  will  run  too  fast  and  too  close  together.  In  this  case, 
dip  and  draw  out  quickly,  when  colors  will  come  more 
slowly. 


82 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


EMERY  POLISHING  STICK 
FIG.  126.  —  POLISHING  FACE  OF  COLD  CHISEL  TO  SHOW  TEMPERING  COLORS. 

213.  To  temper  in  charcoal  or  coke  flame.  —  Many  tools, 
as  chisels,  lathe  and  planer  tools,  punches,  long  blades,  etc., 
are  hardened  outright  and  slowly  tempered  to  a  desired  color 
over  a  forge  fire,  as  the  long-blade  cold  chisel  in  Fig.  127. 


FIG.  127.  —  TEMPERING  COLD  CHISEL  OVER  FORGE  FIRE. 

Attention.  —  To  obtain  more  distinct  temper  colors,  wipe 
polished  surface  with  oily  waste  while  tempering. 

214.  To  harden  and  temper  diamond-point  tool,  one  heat. 
Heat  slowly  to  light  red  in  forge  fire  a  little  more  than 


HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING. 


83 


forged  part,  as  at  A,  Fig.  128,  with  point  upward.  Quickly 
dip  point  downward  in  water  or  brine  as  shown  at  B,  B',  and 
move  about  until  nearly  cold. 


HEAT  LINE 

A 

WATER  LINE 
B' 


FIG.  128.  —  DIPPING  DIAMOND-POINT  TOOL  TO  HARDEN. 

215.    To  temper  diamond-point  tool.  —  Polish  face  quickly 
as  in  Fig.  129,  draw  to  light  straw  by  heat  in  shank,  and  cool 


EMERY  POLISHING  STICK 


FIG.  129.  —  POLISHING  FACE  OF  DIAMOND-POINT  TOOL  TO  SHOW  TEMPERING 

COLORS. 

in  water.  If  color  comes  too  slowly,  pass  tool  back  and 
forth  over  forge  fire,  or  hold  on  hot  bar.  Test  hardness  with 
fine  file  before  and  after  tempering. 


84 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


216.   To  harden  and  temper  side  tool,  one  heat.  —  Heat  to 

a  light  red  in  forge  fire  a  little  more  than  forged  part,  up  to  A, 


HEAT  LINE 

xA 

OX.  WATER  UNE 


FORGE 


FIG.  130.  —  DIPPING  SIDE  TOOL  TO  HARDEN. 

Fig.  130,  with  point  upward.  Quickly  dip  point  downward 
in  water  or  brine  the  distance  shown  at  B  and  B',  and  move 
about  until  almost  cold. 


EMERY  POLISHING  STICK 
FIG.    131.  —  POLISHING  FACE  OF  SIDE  TOOL  TO  SHOW  TEMPERING  COLORS. 

217.  To  temper  side  tool.  —  Polish  side  face  as  in  Fig.  131, 
draw  temper  to  a  light  straw  by  heat  in  shank  of  tool,  and 
cool  in  water.  Test  hardness  with  fine  file  before  and  after 
tempering. 


HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING. 


85 


218.  To  harden  and  temper  side  tool,  two  heats.  —  Heat 
only  to  5,  Fig.  130,  and  dip  to  B.     Polish  face  and  temper  on 
hot  bar  as  in  Fig.  132. 

219.  To  harden  and  temper  a 
spring.  —  Heat  uniformly  to  a 
light  red  and  dip  in  cotton-seed 
oil  or  sperm  oil;  then  hold  over 
fire    until  oil  on  spring  blazes 
and  again  dip.     Repeat  "  blaz- 
ing off "   three  times,  which  is 
about  equal  to  drawing  to  dark 
blue.     Large   springs  are  often 
hardened    by   heating   to    clear 
red  and  plunging    into    boiling 
water. 


FIG.  132.  —  TEMPERING   SIDE 
TOOL  ON  HOT  BAB. 


Two  heats  are  used  to  harden  and  temper  finished 
tools  of  carbon  or  tool  steel,  such  as  taps,  dies,  reamers,  drills, 
milling  cutters,  etc. 

221.   To  harden  a  tap.  —  Heat  slowly  and  evenly  all  over  to 
a  light  red  in  charcoal  or  coke  forge  fire  or  in  gas  or  coal  fur- 


FIG.  133.  —  HARDENING  TAP. 

riace;  then  quickly  plunge  into  clean  cold  water,  as  in  Fig.  133, 
and  move  about  under  water  until  cold.  Test  hardness  with 
fine  file. 

Attention.  —  Taps  are  often  dipped  vertically. 


86 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


222.   To  temper  a  tap.      A  Fig.   134.  —  Polish  to  enable 
colors  to  be  seen.     Heat  metal  ring  B,  two  or  three  times 


I 


FIG.  134.  —  TEMPERING  TAP  IN  HOT  RING. 

diameter  of  tap,  to  light  red.     Hold  shank  of  tap  in  tongs, 
pass  threaded  part  through  ring,  revolve  and  move  back  and 

forth  until  color  is  uni- 
formly drawn  to  a  light 
straw.  Cool  in  oil  or  in  vas- 
eline. If  shank  is  slender, 
draw  to  dark  straw.  The 
slower  temper  is  drawn,  the 
stronger  tool  will  be.  See 
To  Temper  in  Oil,  §  227. 
Attention.  —  More  than 
hot  ring;  may  be 


one   not  ring    may    be  re- 
quired to  temper  a  tap. 

223.  To  harden  mandrel. 
A,  Fig.  135.  -  -  Heat  all 
over  in  molten  lead  B,  in 
lead  hardening  furnace  (7; 
when  raised  to  light  red 
dip  vertically  in  water  D, 
or  brine,  and  move  about 
until  nearly  cold.  Test 
hardness  with  fine  file. 

224.   To  temper  ends  of  mandrel.  —  Polish  reduced  portions 
of  ends  in  hand  lathe  and  vise.     Heat  metal  ring,  draw  ends 


FIG.  135.  —  HEATING  MANDREL,  IN  LEAD. 


HARDENING   AND    TEMPERING. 


87 


of  mandrel  to  dark  straw,  and  cool  as  in  §  221.  Ends  may  be 
given  a  black  finish  by  not  polishing,  and  mandrel  may  be 
tempered  all  over  or  only  at  ends  in  oil  (440°  F.).  See  To 
Temper  in  Oil,  §  227. 

225.  To  harden  carbon  steel  spiral  milling  cutters.  —  A 
carbon  steel  milling  cutter  may  be  heated  in  a  hollow  forge 
fire  or,  preferably,  in  gas,  coal,  or  crude  oil,  furnace,  as  in  Fig. 
136,  to  a  light  red;  then  dip  endways  all  over  in  water  and 

HEATING-DIPPING 
CRUDE  OIL   FURNACE 


TANK— WATER  OR  BRINE 
FIG.  136.  —  HARDENING  CARBON  STEEL  MILLING  CUTTER. 

move  about.  If  the  cutter  is  large,  it  is  good  practice  to  take 
it  out  after  a  few  moments  and  finish  cooling  in  oil.  To  avoid 
cracking,  take  from  water  or  oil  while  slightly  warm  and 
allow  to  cool  in  air. 

226.  To  temper  milling  cutters.  —  Polish  cutter  to  enable 
colors  to  be  seen.  Select  bar  slightly  smaller  than  hole  in 
cutter,  heat  to  red  heat  and  insert  in  cutter.  Revolve  cutter 
on  bar  so  that  it  will  receive  heat  evenly.  Temper  teeth  to 
a  light  straw  color  and  cool  in  oil.  This  method  leaves 
central  portion  tough  and  outer  portion  hard. 


88  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

227.  To  temper  in  oil.  —  Work  may  be  more  rapidly  and 
uniformly  tempered  in  oil  than  by  the  color  process,  and  this 
process  is  used  for  tools  which  need  not  show  color  temper, 
as  milling  cutters,  dies,  taps,  reamers,  mandrels,  punches, 
knives,  shear  blades,  etc.  See  Table,  p.  89. 

Fig.  137  shows  methods  of  tempering  milling  cutter  in  oil- 
tempering  gas  furnace.  The  pot  is  nearly  filled  with  "  black 


IMMERSING  IN  HOT  OIL 

f 


FIG.  137.  —  OIL  TEMPERING  MILLING  CUTTER. 

tempering  oil,"  which  can  be  safely  raised  to  a  temperature 
of  630°  F.,  and  will  temper  steel  from  a  straw  color  to  a  light 
blue.  The  burners  are  underneath  the  pot  and  are  lighted 
through  door  A  with  torch,  and  regulated  by  gas  valve  B 
and  air  valve  C.  When  thermometer  D  indicates  proper 
temperature,  which  for  milling  cutters  should  be  between 
440°  F.  and  470°  F.,  depending  on  the  kind  of  cutter,  sub- 
merge cutter  (dry)  in  the  oil.  As  this  usually  lowers  the 
temperature  of  the  oil,  allow  work  to  remain  until  it  rises  to 
the  proper  degree,  then  remove  and  allow  work  to  cool  in  the 
air. 


TEMPERING. 


89 


TEMPERING  TABLE. 
WITH  DEGREES  OF  HEAT  TO  WHICH  TEMPER  COLORS  CORRESPOND. 


TOOLS. 

TEMPERING  BY 
COLOR. 

TEMPERING  IN 
HOT  OIL. 

FAHR. 

CENT. 

Scrapers,    burnishers,  hammer  faces, 
reamers,  small  tools,  paper  cutters, 

Light  straw.  .  .  . 
• 
Medium  straw  . 

Dark  straw  .... 

430° 

450 
470 
500 

530 
550 
600 

630 

660 

700 
900-1300 
1200-1400 

221° 

232 
243 
260 

277 
288 
316 

332 

349 

371 

483-70, 
649-761 

Lathe  and  planer  tools,  hand   tools, 
milling  cutters,  reamers,  taps,  bor- 
ing bar  cutters,  embossing  dies,  and 

Drills,  dies,  chuck  jaws,  dead  centers, 
mandrels,    arbors,    drifts,    bending 

Small  drills,  rock  drills,  circular  saws 
(for   metal),  drop  dies,  and   wood 

Cold  chisels  (for  steel),  center  punches, 
scratch  awls,  ratchet  drills,  wire  cut- 
ters, shear  blades,  cams,  vise  jaws, 
screw-drivers,     axes,     wood     bits, 

Purple  

Dark  purple  .  .  . 
Dark  blue 

Light      springs      and      blacksmiths' 

Light  blue  

Flashing   point   black   tempering   oil 

Flashing  point  cotton-seed  tempering 

Steel  hardens  light  red  color 

Attention. —  To  transform  degrees  Centigrade  (C.)  to  degrees  Fahr- 
enheit (F.),  or  vice  versa,  use  the  following  formulas:  — 
F.  -  1.8  C.  +  32°;  C.  -  f  (F.  -  32°). 


90 


ELEMENTS  OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


Fig.  138  shows  method  of  tempering  several  pieces  in  wire 
basket,  as  taps,  dies,  milling  cutters,  etc. 

The  basket  may  be  filled  to  the  top.  At  proper  temper- 
ature, submerge  basket  in  oil,  and  when  temperature  rises  to 
proper  degree,  remove  basket. 


IMMERSING  IN  HOT  OIL 

I    THER-      WIRE  I 
|MOMETER|BASKET] 


flETER 


FIG.  138.  —  OIL  TEMPERING  SEVERAL  PIECES  AT  ONCE. 

Work  should  remain  in  oil  from  10  to  15  minutes,  depend- 
ing on  the  size.  Large  work  should  remain  longer  than 
small  work. 

Attention.  —  Dry  the  work  before  immersing  it  in  the  oil, 
for  if  water  adheres  to  the  work  it  will  cause  the  oil  to 
spatter,  and  to  boil  over  if  work  is  lowered  suddenly. 

228.  To   harden   to  proper  degree   without   tempering.  - 
Files  are  hardened  by  heating  them  in  lead  raised  to  proper 
temperature  and  cooling  in  water  or  oil   also  of  a  proper 
temperature. 

HIGH-SPEED  STEEL. 

229.  High-speed  steel  is  an  alloy  of  either  iron  and  tungsten; 
iron,  tungsten,  and  molybdenum;   or  iron,  molybdenum,  and 
chromium.     To  the  alloy  is  added  about  25%  of  vanadium. 
It  is  made  by  the  crucible  process.      It  is  hardened  by  raising 
to  a  white  heat,  about  2100°  F.     Forged  tools  are  cooled  in 
a  blast  of  air,  and  finished  tools  are  cooled   in  oil.     Tools 
may  or  may  not  be  tempered.     Tools  made  from  some  grades 


HIGH-SPEED    STEEL.  91 

of  this  steel  can  be  used  until  the  cutting  edge  is  red  hot  .before 
breaking  down.  High-speed  steel  can  be  annealed  and 
machined  with  high-speed  tools  at  about  the  same  cutting 
speed  as  carbon  steel  tools  will  machine  annealed  carbon  steel. 
It  is  also  obtainable  in  hardened  bars  which  may  be  cut  to 
lengths  by  nicking  all  four  sides  with  an  emery  wheel,  then 
breaking  off  cold. 

High-speed  steel  tools  have  shown  a  cutting  efficiency  of 
from  50%  to  200%  greater  than  carbon  steel.  This  increase 
is  obtained  not  so  much  in  the  finishing  processes  but  in  rough- 
ing out  or  removing  a  large  amount  of  stock.  To  obtain  the 
full  benefit  of  this  steel,  machines  of  greatly  increased  strength 
and  driving  power  are  built. 

230.  To  forge  high-speed  steel  lathe  and  planer  tools. — Heat 
slowly  in  well-burned,  hollow,  coal  or  charcoal  forge  fire  to 
high  lemon  color  and  forge  in  ordinary  way.      There  is  little 
danger  of  burning.    After  forging,  allow  tool  to  cool  gradually 
in  dry  place. 

231.  To  anneal  high-speed  steel.  —  Pack  in  sand  in  a  cast- 
iron  box  made  air-tight.     Heat  to  2100°  F.  and  cool  slowly. 

232.  To  harden  high-speed  steel,  heat  cutting  edge,  A,  Fig. 
139,  in  well-burned  hollow  coal  or  charcoal  forge  fire  to  white 


ROUUHINQ 
TOOL 


FIG.  139.  —  HARDENING  HIGH  SPEED  STEEL  LATHE  TOOL  IN  AIR  BLAST. 

heat  or  until  a  flux  like  melted  borax  forms  on  nose  of  tool, 
confining  heat  to  %  or  J  inch  of  nose.  Cool  in  blast  of  air,  as 
shown,  or  it  may  be  cooled  in  oil,  butjiever  in  water. 


92 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


233.  To  temper  high-speed  steel,  or  relieve  strains,  dip  in  oil 
heated  to  460°  F.  and  cool  in  air. 

234.  To  grind  high-speed  steel,  use  wet  emery  wheel  or 
grindstone  employing  light  pressure  to  avoid  production  of 
surface  cracks,  and  grind  until  all  scale  is  removed. 

235.  To    harden    and    temper    high-speed    steel    cutter. 
Fig.  140.    (Lathe  or  planer  tool.) 


HEATING-DIPPING 


PRESSURE 
BLOWER 

F 


FIG.  140. 
SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


To  Harden. 

Heat  cutter  A  to  white  heat 
(2100°  F.),  in  gas  furnace  B.  Drop 
in  cotton-seed  oil  C  to  cool.  To 
remove,  raise  wire  basket  D. 

A  jet  of  air  is  forced  up  through 


oil  by  pipe  E  from  pressure  blower 
F  to  keep  the  oil  at  a  uniform 
temperature. 

x     To  Temper. 

Immerse  in  oil  heated  to  450°  F. 
and  cool  in  air. 


HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING  HIGH-SPEED   STEEL.     93 

236.    To  harden  and  temper  high-speed  steel  milling  cutter. 

Fig.  141. 


HEATING- DIPPING 
MUFFLE  GAS  FURNACE 


FIG. 141. 
SCHEDULE   OF  OPERATIONS. 


To  Harden. 

Heat    cutter    to    white    heat 
(2100°  F.)  in  muffle  gas  furnace. 
Cool  in  cotton-seed  oil. 


To  Temper. 

Immerse  in  oil  heated  to  450°  F. 
and  cool  in  air. 


FIRE  END          BARIUM 
f  CHLORIDE 


FIG.  142. 


237.    To  heat  high-speed  steel  tap  in  barium  chloride.     Fig. 

142.     Finished  work. 


94 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


To  Harden. 

Heat  barium  chloride  A  in 
gas  furnace  B  from  1900°  F.  to 
2100°  F.  Test  temperature  with 
pyrometer  C.  Place  tap  D  (pre- 
heated) in  basket  E  of  sheet 
nickel.  Immerse  in  barium  chlo- 
ride 3  to  4  minutes.  Cool  in  oil. 
See  §  235.  Clean  in  boiling  caustic 
soda. 


Note.  —  Use  two  fire  ends  F 
when  first  raising  temperature 
to  check  danger  of  overheating 
steel.  Charcoal  may  be  used 
on  top  of  chloride  to  prevent 
oxidation,  but  it  has  a  tendency 
to  pit  tool. 

To  Temper. 

Immerse  in  oil  heated  to  460°  F. 
and  cool  in  air. 


Attention. — Preheat  high-speed  steel  to  a  red  heat  in  another 
furnace  bafore  placing  in  high-temperature  furnace,  to  avoid  spring- 
ing or  cracking. 

CASE-HARDENING. 

238.  Case-hardening  or  pack-hardening  is  the  process  of 
converting  the  surface  of  machine  steel,  wrought  iron  and 
malleable  iron  into  carbon  steel  by  heating  finished  articles  in 
the  presence  of  carbon  and  suddenly  cooling.    Many  articles, 
as  nuts,  wrenches,  and  other  machine  parts,  and  some  finish- 
ing and  cutting  tools    are    made  from    machinery  steel  or 
wrought  iron  and  then  case-hardened. 

Three  processes  of  case-hardening  or  carbonizing:  - 
First,  rapid  cyanide  of  potassium  or  prussiate  of  potash 
process. 

Second,  the  slower,  but  more  thorough,  box  process. 
Third,  carbonizing  with  gas. 

239.  To  case-harden  with  cyanide  of  potassium  or  prussiate 
of  potash.  —  Heat  a  piece  to  a  cherry  red  in  the  usual  way; 
sprinkle  powdered  cyanide  of  potassium  over  the  work  with 
shaker  or  spoon  or  dip  the  work  into  the  cyanide,  and  reheat 
slowly  to  a  cherry  red;  then  plunge  into   cold  water.     This 


CASE-HARDENING. 


95 


process  permits  of  case-hardening  any  portion  of  a  piece  by 
localizing  the  application  of  cyanide  of  potassium. 

240.   To  case-harden  without  colors  by  box  process.  —  The 

old  process  is  to  pack  the  pieces  in  an  iron  box  surrounded 
by  scraps  of  leather,  hoofs  cut  into  small  pieces,  salt,  etc. 


WATER 
TANK 
WITH 

DUMPING  AIR 

BOX  SUPPLY 

C  D 


FIG.  143.  —  CASE-HARDENING  MACHINE  PARTS. 


The  modern  method  is  to  pack  the  articles  in  iron  boxes  At 
Fig.  143,  between  layers  of  granulated  bone  black,  or  raw  bone 
and  cover  with  iron  filings  or  with  an  iron  cover  cemented  with 
clay.  Heat  boxes  to  a  light  red  (1400°  F.  to  1500°  F.) 
in  case-hardening  furnace  J3,  for  two  to  four  hours  accord- 
ing to  the  depth  of  hardening  desired.  When  ready,  remove 
the  cover  and  dump  contents  of  box  C  into  clear,  cold,  soft 


96  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

water  D.  Remove  articles  by  sieve  hung  below  surface  of 
water. 

To  clean  work,  separate  from  bone  and  boil  in  clean 
water.  Dry  in  sawdust,  and  oil  to  bring  out  color  and 
prevent  rusting. 

To  case-harden  with  colors.  —  To  obtain  the  finest  colors 
and  mottling  the  heat  must  be  uniform,  the  work  bright 
and  clean,  the  bone  charred  without  burning  it  before  work 
is  packed  in  it,  and  an  air  pipe  should  be  connected 
with  water  pipe  so  that  air  and  water  will  mix  and 
come  into  the  tank  together  otherwise  the  work  may  be 
hard  but  without  coloring.  Delicate  articles  may  be  dipped 
in  oil. 

Attention.  —  Case-hardening  and  annealing  coal  furnace  B 
is  used  for  case-hardening  by  day  and  the  heat  utilized  for 
annealing  by  night.  Work  to  be  annealed  is  packed  in  old 
burned  bone  and  heated  to  a  cherry  red,  then  removed, 
covered  with  slacked  lime,  and  allowed  to  cool  very 
slowly. 

Note.  —  Machine  steel  and  wrought  iron  absorb  carbon  to 
a  depth  of  about  V  in  24  hours.  Copper-plate  such  portions 
of  work  as  are  not  to  be  case-hardened. 

241.  To  anneal  and  reharden  case-hardened  work.  —  Treat 
the  same  as  carbon  steel,  which  will  not  affect  the  strength  and 
ductility  of  its  inner  part. 

242.  Case-hardening  with  carbonizing  gas  produces  rapidly 
a  deep  penetration  without  packing  in  bone,  leather,  etc. 

—  The  work  is  heated  in  a  special  revolving  gas  furnace  to 
the  desired  temperature,  about  1500°  F.,  and  then  the  carbon- 
izing gas  is  let  into  the  furnace  until  the  proper  depth  of  car- 
bonizing is  obtained,  which  is  about  -^  in  one  hour,  and  i"  in 
12  hours.  The  work  is  revolved  during  the  process,  thus  insur- 
ing uniform  carbonization.  The  control  of  the  heating  gas 
and  carbonizing  gas  is  positive.  The  carbonizing  gas  is  derived 
from  liquids  in  a  special  generator. 


STRAIGHTENING  HARDENED  AND  TEMPERED  TOOLS.     97 
243.    To  straighten  hardened  and  tempered  tools.  Fig.  144. 


STRAIGHTENING 
PRESS 


FIG.  144.  —  STRAIGHTENING  HARDENED  AND  TEMPERED  WORK. 
SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Taps,  reamers,  drills,  mandrels, 
gages,  and  work  of  that  class, 
often  spring  in  hardening  and 
tempering  and  have  to  be  straight- 
ened. 

Example.  —  Mount    hardened 
and  tempered  reamer  A  on  cen- 
ters B,  £'of  straightening  press  C. 
Rotate    with   fingers,   test   with 
chalk,  and  note  eccentricity. 

Place  reamer  on  supports  D,  D' 
with  eccentric  side  up,  and  heat 
at  most  eccentric  part  E  with 
blowpipe  F. 

Apply  pressure  with  screw  G 
operated  by  handle  H  to  force 


reamer  straight  or  slightly  beyond 
straight  as  it  may  spring  back 
some,  then  cool  under  tension 
with  water  from  cup  J  or  wet 
waste.  Again  test  on  centers,  and 
repeat  process  if  needed  until 
reamer  is  true  within  grinding 
limit. 

Caution.  —  To  avoid  drawing 
the  temper  while  heating,  test 
temperature  occasionally  by  touch- 
ing reamer  with  soft  solder  K. 
(Soft  solder  melts  at  370°  F.)  If 
the  solder  melts  readily,  cool  with 
water,  for  the  temperature  must 
not  exceed  430°  F. 


Attention. — Large  lots  of  tools  of  the  above  classes  may  be  straight- 
ened rapidly  by  heating  in  an  oil-tempering  gas  furnace  to  a  tempera- 
ture from  350°  to  400°  F.  This  temperature  is  not  high  enough  to 
draw  the  temper,  but  is  high  enough  to  permit  the  work  to  be  easily 
and  safely  straightened  in  a  press. 


98  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 

Attention. — If  hardened  steel  is  heated  higher  than  630°  F.,  the 
effect  of  the  hardening  process  is  destroyed. 

Note.  —  Some  tools,  as  gages,  scrapers,  etc.,  are  hardened  outright 
and  not  tempered,  and  may  or  may  not  be  slightly  heated  to  relieve 
internal  strains. 


TESTING   HARDNESS  WITH  SCLEROSCOPE. 

244.  The  scleroscope,  Fig.  145,  is  an  instrument  to  measure 
or  test  the  hardness  of  metals,  as  carbon    steel,  high-speed 
steel,   machine  steel,  wrought  iron,   cast  iron  compositions, 
brass,  copper,  and  lead.     It  will  detect  the  slightest  differ- 
ence in  hardened  steel,  a  most  important  factor  in  tool-making. 

The  hardness  of  materials  for  machine  construction  may 
be  predetermined  and  hard  material  annealed  or  discarded 
before  attempting  to  machine  the  same,  thereby  avoiding 
waste  and  permitting  time  estimates  of  machining  work  to 
be  more  accurately  made. 

A  matter  of  great  value  in  designing  and  constructing 
machinery  is  to  know  in  advance  the  comparative  wear  of 
the  different  materials,  and  the  scleroscope  will  enable  one 
to  construct  each  part  of  a  material  which  possesses  the  pre- 
cise degree  of  hardness  to  give  uniform  wear. 

245.  Scleroscope  principle.  —  The  principle  of  the  sclero- 
scope consists  of  dropping  a  tiny  (about  40  grains)  hardened 
steel  jewel  (diamond)  pointed  plunger  hammer  from  a  height 
of  about  ten  inches  onto    the   surface  of  the  material  to  be 
tested,  which  it  penetrates  slightly,  and  reading  on  the  scale 
the  height  of  its  rebound,  which  varies  on  metals  of  different 
hardness.    As  the   area    of    the    jewel  point  is  very   small, 
about  ^¥"  diameter,  the  pressure  on  hard  steel  would  approach 
500,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  which  exceeds  the  elastic 
limit  of  the  hardest  steel. 

The  scale  is  divided  into  140  equal  parts.  High-carbon 
steel  hardened  outright  will  vary  from  90  to  110  but  will 
average  about  100  on  the  scale,  and  other  metals  may  be 
considered  as  so  many  per  cent  as  hard  as  hardened  steel. 


TESTING    HARDNESS. 


99 


SCLEROSCOPE  SCALE  OF  HARDNESS. 


NAME  OF  METAL. 

ANNEALED. 

HAMMERED. 

Steel   carbon   tool  (hardened.)  

90-110 

Steel   high-speed  (hardened)    

70-105 

Chrome-nickel  (hardened)  

60-95 

Chrome-nickel  

47 

Vanadium  steel  

35-45 

Steel   tool    1  65%  carbon 

35-40 

Steel   tool   1%  carbon 

30-35 

40-50 

Iron   gray  (chilled) 

50-90 

Iron   gray  (cast) 

30-45 

Nickel  anode  (cast) 

31 

55 

Mild  steel    015  carbon                 

22 

30-45 

Iron   pure      

18 

25-30 

Platinum  

10 

17 

Brass  (drawn)  

10-15 

20-45 

Bismuth  (cast) 

9 

Pure  tin  (cast) 

8 

Zinc  (cast) 

8 

20 

Brass  (cast) 

7-35 

Silver 

6* 

20-30 

Copper  (cast) 

6 

14-20 

Gold             .  .                     .... 

5 

8* 

Babbitt  metal        .                 

4-9 

Lead  (cast)  

2-5 

3-7 

Attention. — These  figures  are  subject  to  variations  owing  to  the 
varying  composition  or  compression  treatment  of  metals.  Porcelain 
gives  120  and  glass  130. 

246.    To  measure  hardness  of  milling  cutter.     Fig.  145. 


MILLING  CUTTER 


FIG.  145.  —  MEASURING  HARDNESS  OF  MILLING 
CUTTER  WITH  SCLEROSCOPE. 


100 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


SCHEDULE   OF  OPERATIONS. 


Set  scleroscope  plumb  by  rod  1 
and  thumb  screws  2,2'. 

Press  and  suddenly  release 
bulb  3  to  draw  hammer  4 
through  glass  tube  5  to  starting 
point  at  top  6,  where  the  catch 
mechanism  engages  groove  in 
hammer  and  retains  it. 

Raise  clamp  7  by  lever  8  and 
insert  milling  cutter  9  to  be  tested. 
If  lever  8  is  not  nearly  horizontal, 
release  it  by  latch  10  and  set  it 
horizontal. 

With  right  hand  hold  bulb  11 
and  press  on  lever  8  to  hold  cutter 
firmly. 

With  left  thumb  press  valve 


hook  12  to  open  tube  to  avoid 
vacuum  when  hammer  descends; 
then  press  bulb  11  to  release 
hammer,  and  note  approximate 
height  on  scale  to  which  top  of 
hammer  4  rebounds,  as  95  in 
detail  cut. 

Move  work  so  that  hammer 
may  not  strike  twice  in  same  spot, 
and  repeat. 

Knowing  approximate  rebound 
of  hammer,  the  second  or  third 
test  may  be  read  accurately. 

The  reading  lense  and  needle  13 
maybe  moved  to  any  part  of  scale, 
and  is  only  used  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  read  slight  differences. 


Attention. —  Work  to  be  tested  in  this  manner  must  be  flat,  parallel, 
and  fres  from  scale. 

247.  Plaster    mount.  —  Pieces   made  in    odd-shapes  with 
smooth  side  up,  may  be  pressed  and  leveled  in  plaster  dish 
14  by  clamp  and  lever  and  then  tested. 

248.  Magnifier  hammer.  —  As  the  rebound  of  the  jeweled 
hammer  on  soft  metals  is  small,  magnifier  hammer  15  with 
large  point  area  which  rebounds  higher,  may  be  used  to  mag- 
nify variations  in  hardness  of  soft  metals. 

249.  The    swinging    arm.  —  The  scleroscope  may  be  de- 
tached from  its  regular  frame  by  screw  16  and  placed  on 
swinging  arm  post  17  to  test  work  held  level  in  vise  or  on 
surface  plate.     A  drill  may  be  tested  by  grinding  a  little 
flat  on  its  point  and  clamping  upright  in  vise. 


CASE-HARDENING.  101 

250.  To  test  large  work  freehand.  —  Detach  instrument 
from  its  dovetail  block  by  knob  18  and  clamp  in  its  place 
finger  ring  19.  With  thumb  of  right  hand  in  ring,  index  finger 
on  valve  hook  and  left  hand  to  operate  bulbs,  the  instru- 
ment may  be  carried  about  to  test  large  castings  or  attached 
parts  of  machines.  See  File  Test  for  Hardness,  §  196.  See 
File  Test  for  Temper,  §  201. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
CUTTING  OFF  STOCK,  HAND  AND  MACHINE  METHODS. 

251.  Hand  hack  saw,  Fig.  146,  is  composed  of  frame  A  and 
blade  B.    It  is  operated  similarly  to  a  file,  relieving  the  pres- 


<JXM\M 


CUTTING    STROKE 

FIG.  146.  —  SAWING  METAL  WITH  HAND  HACK  SAW. 

sure  on  the  return  stroke.  The  teeth  point  forward  as  at  B. 
It  is  used  dry  for  cutting  off  unhardened  metal,  slotting  screw 
heads,  and  work  of  similar  nature. 

The  frame  is  adjustable  to  take  different  lengths  of  blades, 
and  may  be  set  at  right  angles  to  blade  to  cut  close  to  shoulder. 
For  ordinary  work,  blades  having  14  teeth  to  the  inch  are 
used;  for  tubing  or  sheet  metal,  24  teeth. 

Blades  of  different  widths  are  obtainable  for  slotting 
screws. 

252.  Power  hack  saw — Draw  stroke,  Fig.  147,  is  arranged 
for  cutting  stock  A,  held  in  vise  B,  which  is  clamped  by  screw 
and  lever  C.  Stock  stop  D  is  used  when  duplicating  lengths. 
The  stroke  may  be  increased  or  decreased  by  moving  crank 
pin  E  from  or  to  center  of  crank  F.  Pressure  on  blade  is 
increased  or  decreased  by.  moving  weight  G  along  bar  H. 
This  machine  cuts  on  the  draw  stroke  as  shown  by  arrow. 

102 


POWER    HACK    SAW. 


103 


FIG.  147.  —  SAWING  METAL  WITH  POWER  HACK  SAW. 


104 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


ELECTRIC 
MOTOR 

E 


FIG.  148.  —  ELECTRICALLY   DRIVEN  CUTTING-OFF  MACHINE   WITH  Two 

TOOLS. 


253.    To  cut  off  stock  in  power  cutting-off  machine  — Elec- 
tric drive.     Fig.  148. 


CUTTING-OFF    MACHINES. 


105 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Two  tools  A,  B  operate  at  once 
to  cut  off  stock  C  held  in  chuck  D. 
Tool  B  is  ground  V-shape  to  sepa- 
rate center  of  stock  in  advance 
of  tool  A,  which  is  ground  square. 
Machine  is  driven  by  electric 
motor  E,  a  pinion  on  motor  shaft 
meshing  with  large  spur  gear  F 
on  main  spindle  of  machine. 
Long,  feed  is  operated  by  handle  G 
and  hand  cross  feed  by  handle 
H.  Power  cross  feed  is  operated 
by  pulley  K  driven  from  main 
spindle  by  belt  L.  Cone  pulley  M 
drives  feed  shaft  cone  pulley  N 
by  belt  P.  Splined  worm  Q  on 
feed  shaft  R  drives  worm  wheel  S 


and  cross  feed  screw  T.  Power 
cross  feed  is  obtained  by  lifting 
feed  shaft  R  to  engage  worm  Q 
with  worm  gear  S,  and  terminated 
by  setting  stop  rod  U  to  trip  latch 
V,  releasing  worm  from  gear. 
To  duplicate  lengths,  measure 
first  piece  with  rule,  then  set  stop 
W  to  end  of  work.  Swing  away 
as  shown,  and  return  for  each  new 
piece.  Oil  is  supplied  from  pipe 
X. 

Attention. — This  machine  is  ar- 
ranged to  automatically  maintain 
uniform  cutting  speed  by  gradually 
increasing  revolutions  of  work  as 
tool  approaches  center. 


BAR 
STOCK 


FIG.  149.  —  METAL  SAW  CUTTING-OFF  MACHINE. 


254.  Metal  saw 
cutting  -  off  ma- 
chine. —  In  Fig. 
149  is  shown  a 
machine  supplied 
with  automatic 
feed,  for  cutting 
off  stock  of  any 
shape  to  required 
lengths.  Stock 
A  is  clamped  in 
shoe  B  by  screw 
C,  and  cut  off 
automatically  by 
saw  D.  Dupli- 
cates are  ob- 


tained by  setting  gage  E   to  required  length. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PIPE  AND  PIPE  FITTINGS.      PIPE  TOOLS.      HAND  AND 
MACHINE  METHODS  OF  PIPING. 

PIPE  AND  PIPE  FITTINGS. 

255.   Steel  and  wrought-iron  pipe,  Fig.  150,  are  made  in  iron 
pipe  sizes,  and  designated  by  the  nominal  inside  diameter 

BLACK —  ASPHALTED  —  GALVANIZED 


FIG.  150.  —  STANDARD  STEEL  AND  WROUGHT-!RON  PIPE. 

(I.  D.)  which  is  approximate  only;  for  example,  the  actual 
inside  diameter  of  a  I"  pipe  is  1.048",  and  J"  pipe  is  0.623", 
Fig.  151.  This  pipe  is  used  for  steam,  water,  gas,  air, 
railings,  etc. 


FIG.   151.  — ONE-HALF  FIG.  152.  —  S.  &  W.  I.  FIG.  153.  —  S.    &    W.    I. 

INCH       STEEL      AND  PIPE,     Two     INCHES  PIPE  OVER  Two  INCHES, 

WROUGHT-IRON  PIPE,  AND    UNDER,    BUTT-  LAP-WELDED. 

FULL  SIZE.  WELDED. 

Steel  and  wrought-iron  pipe  2"  and  under  are  butt- welded, 
Fig.  152;  over  2",  lap-welded,  Fig.  153;  and  are  made  in  three 
thicknesses,  Fig.  154. 


Standard  Pipe.  Extra  Strong.  Double-extra  Strong. 

FIG.  154.  —  COMPARATIVE  THICKNESS  OF  ONE-HALF  INCH  S.  &  W.  I.  PIPE, 

•FULL  SIZE. 
106 


PIPE    AND    TUBING.  107 

The  working  pressures  are  as  follows: 

Standard:  steam,  about  100  pounds;  water  (hydraulic),  200 
pounds  per  square  inch. 

Extra  strong  (thickness  about  1J  times  standard):  steam 
200  pounds;  water,  400  pounds.  Also  used  for  ammonia. 

Double-extra  strong  (thickness  two  times  extra  strong): 
water,  6000  pounds. 

The  extra  thickness  is  inside  of  pipe  so  that  standard  dies 
and  taps  can  be  used. 

Pipe  is  obtained  in  random  lengths  (usually  from  16  to  20 
feet),  both  ends  threaded  and  one  end  supplied  with  a 
wrought-iron  coupling  (Fig.  150).  Extra  and  double-extra 
strong  have  plain  ends  unless  specified.  . 

256.  Galvanized  steel  and  wrought-iron  pipe  and   fittings 
(obtained  by  dipping  in  a  bath  of  molten  zinc)   are  largely 
used  for  cold  water  to  avoid  rust  or  corrosion.     Steel  rusts 
more  quickly  than  wrought  iron. 

257.  Lead  and  tin-lined  iron  and  steel  pipe  and  fittings,  Fig. 
155,   are  considerably  used  in  waterworks  service  for  acids, 


FIG.  155.  —  LEAD  OR  TIN-LINED  IRON  PIPE. 

chemicals,  salt  water,  salt  wells,  and  for  all  corrosive  liquids 
which  eat  out  iron  pipe. 

258.   Electric  conduits  or  tubes.  —  To  protect  electric  wires 
and  cables  from  mechanical  injury  and  moisture,  enameled  or 


FIG.  156.  —  ENAMELED  CONDUIT  STEEL  PIPE  FOR  ELECTRIC  WIRES  AND  CABLES. 

asphalted  (tarred)  steel  tubes,  or  pipe,  Fig.  156,  and  fittings 
are  used.  They  are  made  to  correspond  with  iron  pipe  sizes 
and  iron  pipe  fittings. 


108  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 

259.  Pipe  threads  are  V-shaped  and  have  an  angle  of  60°. 

260.  Pipe  threads  are  tapered  to  enable  the  joints   to  be 
screwed  tight.      The  taper  is  I"  per  foot  for  all  sizes  to  8";  \ 
per  foot  above  8". 

261.  Pipe  taps  are  made  solid  for  hand  tapping,  and  auto- 
matic adjustable  collapsing  for  machine  tapping. 

262.  Pipe   dies   are   made  solid   and  adjustable  for  hand 
threading  and  adjustable  expanding  for  machine  threading. 

263.  Pipe  fittings  are  used  to  connect  pipe  lengths,  to  reduce 
sizes,  and   to   branch  off  in   different   directions.     They  are 
obtainable  in  cast  iron  and  malleable  iron,  tapped  ready  for 
use.     Cast-iron  and  malleable  fittings  are  tapped  the   same 
taper  as  pipe  thread;  wrought-iron  couplings  are  tappedstraight 
and  they  stretch  to  fit  taper  pipe  thread.    Extra  heavy  fittings, 
to  correspond  to  the  extra  strong  pipe  and  steel  fittings  for 
double-extra  strong,  are  obtainable. 

264.  A  regular  fitting  is  tapped  the  same  size  at  both  ends. 
as  1  in  chart,  Fig.  166,  and  connects  pipe  of  same  size. 

265.  A  reducing  fitting  is  tapped  a  different  lize  at  each  end, 
as  2  in  chart,  Fig.  166,  and  connects  different  sizes  of  pipe. 

266.  Right  and  left  fittings.  —  Both  ends  of  a  fitting  have  a 
right  thread  unless  ribbed  like  right  and  left  coupling  3  in 
chart,  Fig.  166,  to  indicate  that  one  end  has  left  thread;  or 
one  end  is  ribbed  like  right  and  left  elbow  6  in  chart,  Fig. 
166,  to  indicate  left  end.     Right  and  left  return  bends  may  or 
may  not  be  ribbed. 

Attention.  —  Instead  of  ribs,  some  makes  of  left  fittings 
have  a  raised  L. 

267.  Lubricants   for   cutting   off   and   threading  pipe   and 
tapping  fittings.  —  Lard  oil  is  used  in  cutting  off  and  thread- 
ing steel  and  wrought-iron  pipe  and  in  tapping  cast-iron  and 
malleable-iron  fittings. 

A  mixture  of  lard  oil  and  graphite  is  used  for  cutting  off 
and  threading  brass  pipe  and  tubing  (drawn  or  rolled  brass); 
brass  fittings  (cast  brass)  are  tapped  dry;  lard  oil,  or  milk, 
is  used  for  cutting  off  and  threading  copper  pipe;  bronze 
fittings  (cast)  are  tapped  dry. 


PIPE    AND    TUBING.  109 

268.  Pipe-joint  cement.  —  A  tight  screwed  joint  is  made 
between  a  pipe  and  a  pipe  fitting  of  any  metal  by  applying  to 
the  thread  a  mixture  of  red  and  white  lead  and  sperm  or  lard 
oil,  or  graphite  paint,  or  tallow,  which  is  both  a  lubricant  and 
a  packing,  and  screwing  the  joint  tight. 

Attention.  —  A  joint  will  stand  a  higher  test  if  the  cement 
is  allowed  to  dry  before  applying  pressure. 

269.  Brass,  copper,  and  bronze  pipe  or  tubes  (seamless  drawn), 
Fig.  157,  are  obtainable  in  iron  pipe  sizes,  Fig.  158,  plumbers' 
sizes,  for  fine  threads,  Fig.  159  (see  §  270),  and  in  round  tubes 


FIG.  157.  —  BRASS,  COPPER  AND  BRONZE       FIG.  158. —  ONE-HALF  INCH  BRASS 
TUBES,  SEAMLESS  DRAWN.  PIPE  IRON  SIZE,  FULL  SIZE. 

only,  of  various  inside  and  outside  diameters,  with  light, 
medium,  and  heavy  walls.  Such  pipes  have  a  wide  use  for 
steam,  hot  and  cold  water  plumbing,  coils,  heaters,  stills,  pneu- 
matic tubes,  steam  chimes,  musical  instruments,  stationary 
locomotive  and  marine  boiler  trimmings,  condensers,  railings, 
and  in  distilleries,  alcohol  plants,  sugar  refineries,  etc.,  and  where 
either  special  service  or  ornamentation,  or  both,  are  desired. 

The  fittings  for  brass  pipe  are  cast  brass  and  for  copper 
pipe  cast  bronze,  in  the  beaded  or  regular  patterns,  and  are 
tapped  same  taper  as  pipe  thread.  The  pipe  is  usually  sup- 
plied unthreaded,  and  for  very  nice  work  the  pipe  arid  fittings 
are  nickel  plated. 

Attention.  —  Steel,  wrought-iron,  and  brass  pipe  are  threaded 
with  any  type  of  a  pipe  die,  but  to  thread  copper  pipe  a  type 
of  die  that  will  open  and  can  be  removed  without  backing  off 
is  used  to  avoid  stripping  the  thread. 

270.  Brass  pipe,  iron  pipe  size,  will  sustain  a  working 
pressure  (steam)  about  250  pounds,  water  (hydraulic)  about 
500  pounds  per  square  inch. 


110 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


Brass  tubing  (brazed)  is  obtainable  in  round,  square,  and 
rope  shapes,  and  is  used  for  various  mechanical  purposes,  as 
the  ornamental  parts  of  electric  and  gas  fixtures,  railings  and 
foot  rests  for  automobiles,  bedsteads,  ferrules,  etc.  Taps  and 
dies  are  straight  threaded  with  27  threads.  Brazed  steel 
tubing  is  also  obtainable. 

Thin  copper  tubes  are  usually  made  with  flanged  ends  and  bent 
to  conform  to  wooden  patterns,  and  used  for  steam  or  other  pur- 
poses where  weight  is  objectionable,  as  in  small  boats,  ships,  etc. 
The  thickness  of  tubing  is  measured  with  a  special  micrometer. 


Q 

I  Qll  I 


FIG.  159.  —  THREE- 
QUARTER  INCH 
BRASS  PIPE  PLUMB- 
ERS' SIZE,  FULL 
SIZE. 


271.  Brass  and  copper  pipe,  and  fittings 
plumbers'  sizes  are  designated  by  their 
outside  diameter  the  same  as  all  tubing; 
that  is,  a  f"  plumbers'  brass  pipe  is  f" 
outside  diameter  and  about  f "  inside  diam- 
eter. (Fig.  159.) 

The  fittings  are  tapped  out  and  the 
pipe  threaded  with  the  brass  or  fine  thread 
taps  and  dies  according  to  the  sizes  and 
threads  given  in  the  following  table. 

Taper  of  taps  and  dies  is  j"  per  foot 


A  TABLE  OF  SIZES  AND  THREADS  OF  PLUMBERS'  SIZES 
OR  FINE-THREAD   TAPS  AND   DIES. 


DIAMETER  OF  TAP 

No.  OF 

DIAMETER  OF  TAP 

No.  OF 

OR  DIE. 

THREADS. 

OR  DIE. 

THREADS. 

i 

28 

H 

18 

f 

28 

1* 

18 

* 

28 

If 

18 

f 

20 

2 

16 

f 

20 

2i 

16 

I 

18 

2* 

16 

1 

18 

The  working  pressure  of  plumbers'  size  brass  pipe  is  about 
100  pounds  (water)  per  square  inch. 


PIPE    AND   TUBING. 


Ill 


SEAMLESS  DRAWN  BRASS   PLUMBING  TUBES. 


OUTSIDE 
DIAM- 
ETER. 
INCHES. 

THICKNESS 
STUBS' 
WIRE 
GAGE. 

ABOUT 
WEIGHT 
PER  RUN- 
NING FOOT. 
POUNDS. 

OUTSIDE 
DIAM- 
ETER. 
INCHES. 

THICKNESS 
BY  STUBS' 
WIRE 
GAGE. 

ABOUT 
WEIGHT 
PER  RUN- 
NING FOOT. 
POUNDS. 

t 

i 

i 

i 

No.  15 

No.  15 
No.  15 
No.  14 

.46 
.56 
.67 

.88 

H 
1* 
if 

2 

No.  13 
No.  13 

No.  13 
No.  13 

1.27 
1.55 
1.82 
2.10 

272.  Nickel-plated  tubes  (seamless  brass),  Fig.  160,  are  used 
for  open  plumbing  (drainage).  They  are  obtainable  in  sizes 
1J",  iy,  and  2"  (O.D.).  The  threads  have  'a  taper  of  TV"  to  1", 
and  the  thickness  by  B.  and  S.,  No.  19  gage  for  all  sizes  .03589". 
For  fittings  see  Chart  of  Pipe  Fittings,  Fig.  167,  Nos.  54  and 
55,  and  for  pipe  tools  see  Chart  of  Pipe  Tools,  Fig.  169,  Nos. 
44,  45,  and  46. 


FIG.  160. — THREE-QUARTER 
INCH  NICKEL  PLATED 
TUBING,  FULL  SIZE. 


FIG.  161. —  CAST-IRON  FLANGED 
PIPE. 


273.   Cast-iron  pipe,  Fig.  161,  with  flanged  ends  and  fittings 
4"  to  30",  is  obtainable  for  steam,  water,  etc. 


V  BRANCH 


C.I.  PIPE 
I 


— WIPED  JOINT 
SOLDERING  NIPPLE 
BRASS 


HUB          OAKUM  CALKED  LEAD 

FIG.  162.  —  CAST-IRON  SOIL  PIPE  WITH  LEAD  CONNECTION. 

274.   Cast-iron  drain  pipe  (soil  pipe),  Fig.  162,  is  used  for 
drainage.     It  comes  light  and  heavy.      Each  length  is  fur- 


112  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK 

nished  with  one  hub,  although  lengths  with  two  hubs  are 
obtainable.  It  is  connected  by  inserting  spigot  end  in  hub, 
then  calking  with  oakum  (tarred  hemp)  and  pouring  in  hot 
lead,  after  which  it  is  calked  to  make  tight.  When  joints  are 
made  horizontal,  an  asbestos  runner  or  rope  covered  with 
clay  is  used  to  form  mold.  Water  and  gas  supply  mains  are 
joined  in  a  similar  manner  but  the  pipe  is  heavier. 

275.  Lead-pipe  or  block -tin  pipe  (seamless)  is  used  for  water, 
soda,  and  other  liquids. 

276.  Lead-pipe  joints  are  cupped  and  soldered  (wiped)  with 
plumbers'  solder,  and  are  called  wiped  joints.   Flange  couplings 
are  obtainable  for  lead  pipe.     As  a  substitute  for  elbows,  the 
pipe  is  bent. 

277.  Tin -pipe  joints  are  cupped  and  soldered  with  fine  solder 
and  soldering  iron,  and  are  known  as  cupped  joints. 

278.  Aluminium  pipe  and  fittings  (cast)  are  made  from  pat- 
terns with  flanged  ends. 

279.  Packings  for  unions,  piston  rods,  cylinder  heads,  etc.  - 
For  cast  iron   and  malleable   unions,  cylinder  heads,  steam 
chests,  etc.,  washer  or  gasket  packings  are  used. 

For  low-pressure  steam,  red  sheet  rubber  with  or  without 
pipe-joint  cement  is  used. 

Circular  gaskets  of  sheet  rubber  may  be  lined  out  with  divid- 
ers and  cut  with  a  knife.  To  line  out  other  shapes  such  as 
gaskets  for  steam  chests  of  pumps  and  engines,  place  sheet  of 
rubber  on  chest  and  with  light  blows  go  around  edges  with 
face  of  hammer  and  holes  with  ball  peen. 

Note.  —  Narrow  gaskets  inside  of  bolt  holes  are  often  sufficient. 

For  high-pressure  steam,  metallic  sheet  packing  or  asbestos 
with  wire  insertion  is  used. 

For  cold  water,  leather,  dry,  or  with  cement. 

For  hot  water,  vulcanized  rubber  or  red  rubber. 

For  gas,  vulcanized  rubber  or  red-lead  putty. 

For  gasolene,  asbestos  alone  or  with  wire  or  sheet  copper 
insertion. 

For  oil  and  ammonia.  —  White  sheet  rubber  alone  or  with 
wire  insertion,  with  or  without  cement. 


PIPE    AND   TUBING. 


113 


For  cold-water  faucets,  leather  washers. 

For  hot-water  faucets,  fiber  washers. 

For  piston  rods  and  valve  stems,  soft  packings  in  rings, 
spirals,  and  coils  are  obtainable  made  of  flax,  lubricated  with 
tallow,  graphite,  or  other  anti-friction  compounds,  or  rubber 
with  cloth  insertion,  or  molded  asbestos  rings. 

For  gas  engine  valve  rods,  asbestos  wicking. 

For  hydraulic  pistons,  leather  rings  U-shaped  in  section 
are  used,  also  cotton  ducking,  round  or  square. 

Metal  packings.  —  Where  soft  packings  are  undesirable, 
ground  joints  are  used  in  cylinder  heads,  steam  chests,  unions, 
etc.,  without  packing  or  cement. 

For  rough  flanges,  corrugated  copper  gaskets  are  used. 

For  piston  rods,  metal  packings  are  used  composed  of  soft 
metal  parts  overlapping  each  other  and  held  in  place  by 
springs. 

For  calking  tanks,  etc.,  oakum  (hemp)  or  jute  is  used. 

For  connecting  special  fitting  to  slate  or  soapstone,  ure 
litharge  mixed  with  linseed  oil. 

TABLE  OF  PIPE  EQUIVALENTS. 


1     in. 
1£  in. 
14  in. 

MAIN 
will  supply, 
will  supply, 
will  supply. 

.two  f 
.two  1 
.  two  1J 

in 
in 
in 

BRANCH. 

2     in. 

will 

supply. 

.two  1^ 

in 

24  in. 

will 

supply. 

.  two  1^ 

in 

.  and  one  1  J  in  ,    or  one 

2 

in 

and 

one 

liin. 

3    in. 

will 

supply. 

.  one  2^ 

in 

and  one  2    in 

,    or  two 

2 

in 

and 

one 

Hin. 

34  in. 

will 

supply. 

.  two  2£ 

in 

.     or  one  3    in 

and  one 

2 

in 

,    or 

three 

2    in. 

4     in. 

will 

supply. 

.  one  3£ 

in 

and  one  2£  in 

,    or  two 

3 

in. 

and 

four 

2    in. 

4^-  in. 

will 

supply. 

.  one  3$ 

in 

and  one  3    in. 

or  one 

4 

in. 

and 

one 

2£  in. 

5    in. 

will 

supply. 

.one  4 

in. 

and  one  3    in. 

or  one 

•H 

in. 

and 

one 

2^  in. 

6    in. 

will 

supply  . 

.  two  4 

in 

and  one  3    in. 

or  four 

3 

in. 

,    or 

ten 

2    in. 

7    in. 

will 

supply. 

.one  6 

in. 

and  one  4    in. 

or  three  4 

in. 

and 

one 

2    in. 

8    in. 

will 

supply. 

.two  6 

in. 

and  one  5    in. 

or  five 

4 

in. 

and 

two 

2    in. 

280.  Steel  tubes  (seamless  drawn),  Fig.  163,  are  obtainable 
in  iron  pipe  sizes  and  in  hundreds  of  different  sizes  (O.D.) 
from  .025"  in  diameter  and  .009"  wall  to  20"  diameter  and  1" 
wall  (thickness  by  Stubs'  or  Birmingham  wire  gage),  and  in 
round,  half-round,  square,  and  oval  shapes.  Fig.  164  shows 
a  J"  tube  full  size. 


114  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

They  have  a  wide  use  .in  manufacturing  and  engineering, 
in  automobile  axles,  running  gears,  cylindrical  and  tubular 
ball  and  roller  bearings,  steering  rods,  tubular  spokes  and 
hubs,  boiler  tubes,  bicycle  frames  and  forks,  handle  bars, 


O 


^  2  ™ 

FIG.  163.  —  STEEL  TUBES,          FIG.  164.  —  ONE  HALF  INCH  STEEL 
SEAMLESS  DRAWN.  SEAMLESS  TUBE  FULL  SIZE. 

saddle  posts,  pumps,  sulkies,  hydraulic  and  pneumatic  tubes, 
rings  in  ring  spinning  and  twisting  frames,  spindles,  rolls, 
bolsters,  shafting,  piston  rods,  piston  chucks,  bushings, 
sleeves,  die-stock  handles,  pneumatic  tools,  washers,  printing- 
press  rolls,  agricultural  harvesting  and  ice  machinery,  laundry 
mangle  rolls,  mandrels  for  rubber  tires  and  hose,  cream 
separator  bowls,  frames  of  surgical  operating  tables,  dental 
engines,  instrument  cases,  bookcases,  chairs,  tables,  fishing 
and  umbrella  rods,  canes,  display  frames,  magazine  rifles, 
air  guns,  toy  pistols,  masts,  signal  and  trolley  poles  and  flag- 
staffs,  hand  railings,  etc. 

They  are  obtained  in  three  anneals,  —  hard,  stiff  (cannot 
be  bent) ;  medium,  tough  (can  be  bent  slightly) ;  soft,  ductile 
and  pliable  (suitable  for  bending  or  forming  into  special 
shapes). 

Small  machine  parts  can  be  readily  made  by  using  tubing 
slightly  over-size,  then  grinding  or  machining  to  size.  The 
parts  may  or  may  not  be  case-hardened. 
Joints  are  made  by  brazing,  thread- 
ing, flanging,  expanding,  beading,  and 
FIG.  165.— NICKEL  TUBES,  by  shrink,  force,  drive,  sliding,  or  push 

SEAMLESS  DRAWN.  r*. 

281.  Nickel  tubes,  Fig.  165  (seamless  drawn;  an  alloy  of 
nickel  and  copper),  are  obtainable  in  all  regular  sizes  (O.D.) 
with  thickness  by  Stubs  or  Birmingham  gage.  They  are  obtain- 
able in  all  iron  pipe  sizes  (I.D.)  with  fittings  of  the  same  metal. 


PIPE    AND    TUBING. 


115 


The  non-corrosive  and  polishing  qualities  of  solid  nickel  tubing 
make  it  superior  to  plated  tubing  for  many  purposes.  It  is 
used  for  railings,  coolers,  exposed  plumbing  in  public  buildings, 
fine  residences,  clubs,  and  theaters,  condenser  tubes  in  trans- 
Atlantic  liners,  men-of-war,  yachts,  etc. 

282.  Tables  of  pipe,  measurements.  —  The  table  below  is 
useful  to  the  beginner  in  pipe  fitting.  As  shown  in  the 
table,  custom  has  established  a  particular  length  of  screwed 
end  for  each  different  diameter  of  pipe.  The  slight  varia- 
tion that  is  sometimes  found  in  pipe  dies,  and  the  slight 
variation  sometimes  found  in  pipe  fittings,  may  make  it  neces- 
sary to  run  the  die  on  the  pipe  a  little  more  or  less  than 
that  recommended  in  the  table.  Again,  very  frequently 
one  must  drill  or  bore  a  hole  to  be  tapped  with  a  pipe  tap, 
and  the  second  column  in  the  table  gives  the  practical  root 
diameter  of  pipe  tap. 

A  WORKING   TABLE  OF  IRON  PIPE  SIZES  —  BRIGGS' 
STANDARD. 


NOMINAL, 

DlA.    OF 

PIPE. 

TAP 
DRILL  OK 
BORE. 

THREADS 
PER  IN. 

LENGTH 

OF 

THREAD. 

f 

ft 

27 

& 

i 

|| 

18 

t 

f 

if 

18 

T5 

* 

If 

14 

^ 

i 

if 

14 

A 

1 

1& 

Hi 

f 

It 

l|i 

Hi 

H 

li 

2f3f 

Hi 

If 

2 

Hi 

1 

2i 

2f 

8 

i 

3 

3i 

8 

i 

3i 

3| 

8 

IT^ 

4 

4i 

8 

ii 

4i 

4f 

8 

H 

5 

5  A 

8 

ii 

6 

6^ 

8 

if 

7 

71      . 

8 

ii 

8 

8f 

8 

if 

9 

Q    5 

8 

IT^ 

10 

ion 

8 

1* 

116 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


TABLE  OF  DIMENSIONS  OF  STANDARD   WEIGHT 
WROUGHT-IRON  PIPE  —  BRIGGS'  STANDARD. 

l£  and  Smaller  Proved  to  300  Lbs.  per  Square  Inch  by  Hydraulic  Pressure. 
1£  and  Larger  Proved  to  500  Lbs.  per  Square  Inch  by  Hydraulic  Pressure. 


A 

Q 

i 

0) 

i 

e 

£ 

£Sg 

i| 

(H 

0) 

a    • 

11 

1 

o 

13    . 
5 

09 

"2 

'« 

1 

PH 

1 
3 
o 
t* 

$N 

.111 

dnfe^ 

• 

i 

O     3 

8  ° 

a  » 

cu  S 

1 

^ 

i 
$£ 

c,  o 

£ 

o> 

T3 

"I 

ctual  Ou 
ameter. 

i 

| 

j3 

ctual  In 
ameter. 

0 

a)    aJ 
2  g 
§  ® 

utside  Ci 
ence. 

•wW't! 

O  ID  3 
^d^ 

fg-3 

gar  53 

ength  of 
Square 
Outside 

<5 

o 
Tj 

'35 

utside  A: 

ength  of  . 
taining  c 
Foot. 

OJ 

a 

1 

5 

o.ofThr 
Inch  of  ! 

"1 

ll 

a!  a 

< 

H 

< 

h-  1 

0 

h3 

A 

£ 

0 

H) 

£ 

Z 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

In. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

In. 

In. 

Ft. 

Lbs. 

In. 

I 

0.405 

0.068 

0.270 

0.848 

1.272 

14.15 

9.44 

0.0572 

0.129 

2500. 

0.243 

27 

A 

i 

0.54 

0.088 

0.364 

1.144 

1.696 

10.50 

7.075 

0.1041 

0.229 

1385. 

0.422 

18 

A 

1 

0.675 

0.091 

0.494 

1.552 

2.121 

7.67 

5.657 

0.1916 

0.358 

751.5 

0.561 

18 

A 

* 

0.84 

0.109 

0.623 

1.957    2.652 

6.13 

4.502 

0.3048 

0.554 

472.4 

0.845 

14 

1 

1.05 

0.113 

0.824 

2.589 

3.299 

4.635 

3.637 

0.5333 

0.866 

270. 

1.126 

14 

A 

1 

1.315 

0.134 

1.048 

3.292 

4.134 

3.679 

2.903 

0.8627 

1.357 

166.9 

1.670 

11* 

ij'y 

li 

1.66 

0.140 

1.380 

4.335 

5.215 

2.768 

2.301 

1.496 

2.164 

96.25 

2.258 

11* 

A 

1* 

1.90 

0.145 

1.611 

5.061 

5.969 

2.371 

2.01 

2.038 

2.835 

70.65 

2.694 

11J 

A 

2 

2.375 

0.154 

2.067 

6.494 

7.461 

1.848 

1.611 

3.355 

4.430 

42.36 

3.600 

H* 

A 

2* 

2.875 

0.204 

2.468 

7.754 

9.032 

1.547 

1.328 

4.783 

6.491 

30.11 

5.773 

8 

A 

3 

3.50 

0.217 

3.067 

9.636 

10.996 

1.245 

1.091 

7.388 

9.621 

19.49 

7.547 

8 

A 

?i 

4.00 

0.226 

3.548 

11.146 

12.566 

1.077 

0.955 

9.887 

12.566 

14.56 

9.055 

8 

A 

4 

4,50 

0.237 

4.026 

12.648 

14.137 

0.949 

0.849 

12.730 

15.904 

11.31 

10.66 

8 

A 

4i 

5.00 

0.247 

4.508 

14.153 

15.708 

0.848 

0.765 

15.939 

19.635 

9.03 

12.34 

8 

A 

5 

5.563 

0.259 

5.045 

15.849 

17.475 

0.757 

0.629 

19.990 

24.299 

7.20 

14.50 

8 

A 

6 

6.625 

0.280 

6.065 

19.054 

20.813 

0.63 

0.577 

28.889 

34.471 

4.98 

18.767 

8 

A 

7 

7.625 

0.301 

7.023 

22.063 

23.954 

0.544 

0.595 

38.737 

45.663 

3.72 

23.27 

8 

A 

8 

8.625 

0.322 

7.982 

25.076 

27.096 

0.478 

0.444 

50.039 

58.426 

2.88 

28.177 

8 

A 

9 

9.625 

0.344 

9.001 

28.277 

30.433 

0.425 

0.394 

63.633 

73.715 

2.26 

33.70 

8 

^j 

10 

10.75 

0.366 

10.019 

31  .475 

33.772 

0.381 

0.355 

78.838 

90.762 

1.80 

40.06 

8 

i^T 

11 

12.00 

0.375 

11.25 

35.  343  ;  37.  699 

0.340 

0.318 

98.942 

113.097 

1.455 

45.95 

8 

^j 

12 

12.75 

0.375 

12.000 

38.  264  1  40.  840 

0.313 

0.293 

116.535 

132.732 

1.235 

48.98 

8 

^j 

14.00 

0.375 

13.25 

41.268 

43.982 

0.290 

0.273 

134.582 

153.938 

1.069 

53.92 

8 

^1 

15.00 

0.375 

14.25 

44.271 

47.124 

0.271 

0.254 

155.968 

176.715 

.923 

57.89 

8 

^j 

16.00 

0.375 

15.25 

47.274 

50.265 

0.254 

0.238 

177.867 

201.062 

.809 

51.77 

8 

^j 

17.00 

0.375 

16.25 

51.05 

53.40 

18.00 

0.375 

17.25 

53.281 

56.548 

0.225 

0.212 

225.907 

254.469 

.638 

69.66 

20.00 

0.375 

19.25 

59.288 

62.832 

0.202 

0.191 

279.720 

314.160 

.515 

77.57 

21.00 

0.375 

20.25 

63.61 

fifi  Q7 

22.00 

0.375 

21.25 

66.75969.115 

0.179 

0.174 

354.66 

380.134 

.406 

85.47 

24.00 

0.375 

23.25 

73.04 

75.39 

0.164 

0.159 

424.56 

452.39 

.339 

93.37 

PIPE    AND    TUBING. 


117 


TABLE  OF  DIMENSIONS  OF  EXTRA  STRONG  WROUGHT- 
IRON  PIPE. 


V 

03 

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, 

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In. 

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Lbs. 

i 

.20 

.40 

.10 

.64 

1.27 

18.63 

9.43 

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.12 

.29 

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.54 

.12 

.92 

1.69 

12.98 

7.07 

.06 

.22 

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.67 

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1.32 

2.12 

9.07 

5.65 

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1.70 

2.63 

7.04 

4.54 

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i 

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4.13 

4.01 

2.90 

.71 

1.35 

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11 

1.27 

1.66 

.19 

3.99 

5.21 

3.00 

2.80 

1.27 

2.16 

3.00 

14 

1.49 

1.90 

.20 

4.69 

5.96 

2.55 

2.01 

1.75 

2.83 

3.63 

2 

1.93 

2.37 

.22 

6.07 

7.46 

1.97 

1.60 

2.93 

4.43 

5.02 

24 

2.31 

2.87 

.28 

7.27 

9.03 

1.64 

1.32 

4.20 

6.49 

7.67 

3 

2.89 

3.50 

.30 

9.08 

10.99 

1.32 

1.00 

6.56 

9.62 

10.25 

3 

3.35 

4.00 

.32 

10.54 

12.56 

1.13 

.95 

8.85 

12.56 

12.47 

4 

3.81 

4.50 

.34 

11.99 

14.13 

1.00 

.84 

11.44 

15.90 

14.97 

41. 

4.25 

5.00 

.35 

13.35 

15.71 

.90 

.76 

14.18 

19.63 

17.60 

5 

4.81 

5.56 

.37 

15.12 

17.47 

.79 

.68 

18.19 

24.30 

20.54 

6 

5.75 

6.62 

.43 

18.06 

20.81 

.66 

.57 

25.93 

34.47 

28.58 

7 

6.62 

7.62 

.50 

20.81 

23.95 

.58 

.50 

34.47 

45.66 

37.60 

8 

7.62 

8.62 

.56 

23.56 

27.10 

.51 

.44 

44.18 

58.42 

47.85 

TABLE  OF  DIMENSIONS  OF   DOUBLE-EXTRA  STRONG 
WROUGHT-IRON  PIPE. 


•§. 

1 

1 

£ 

i     ® 

££-§ 

SSis 

2 

01 

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3    <D 

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£  |1 

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15.69 

5.65 

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.36 

.96 

£ 

.24 

.84 

.29 

.76 

2.63 

15.66 

4.54 

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.55 

1.50 

1 

.42 

1.05 

.31 

1.32 

3.29 

9.04 

3.63 

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2.30 

i 

.58 

1.31 

.36 

1.84 

4.13 

6.50 

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1.35 

3.40 

H 

.88 

1.66 

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2.78 

5.21 

4.31 

2.30 

.61 

2.16 

5.00 

14 

1.08 

1.90 

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3.41 

5.96 

3.51 

2.01 

.93 

2.83 

6.45 

2 

1.49 

2.37 

.44 

4.68 

7.46 

2.56 

1.60 

1.74 

4.43 

9.00 

24 

1.75 

2.87 

.56 

5.51 

9.03 

2.17 

1.32 

2.41 

6.49 

13.30 

3" 

2.28 

3.50 

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7.17 

10.99 

1.67 

1.09 

4.09 

9.62 

18.50 

24 

2.71 

4.00 

.64 

8.53 

12.56 

1.40 

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5.79 

12.56 

22.00 

4 

3.13 

4.50 

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9.85 

14.13 

1.21 

.84 

7.72 

15.90 

27.48 

44 

3.56 

5.00 

.72 

11.20 

15.71 

1.05 

.76 

9.96 

19.64 

32.45 

A 

4.06 

5.56 

.75 

12.76 

17.47 

.94 

.68 

12.69 

24.30 

38.12 

fl 

4.87 

6.62 

.78 

15.89 

20.81 

.78 

.57 

20.10 

34.47 

53.11 

7 

5.98 

7.62 

.82 

18.83 

23.95 

.62 

.50 

28.16 

45.66 

60.34 

8 

6.88 

8.62 

.87 

21.61 

27.10 

.56 

.44 

37.17 

58.43 

71.52 

118 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


IRON   PIPE  SIZES  OF  SEAMLESS  DRAWN  BRASS  AND 
COPPER  TUBES. 


%   h   „ 

QJ 

-*^   u   'A 

Iron 

Inside 

Outside 

Length 

oj    a;    m 

Iron 

Inside 

Outside 

Length 

rt    a    » 

S  &  3 

Pipe 

Diam- 

Diam. 

Feet, 

'*  -s  w 

2  "M     ^ 

Pipe 

Diam- 

Diam- 

Feet, 

'H  5  « 

°  "tc    *• 

Size. 

eter. 

eter. 

about 

a  '»  o 

Size. 

eter. 

eter. 

about 

tn  .Sr  -*^ 

C.    03     O 

a  >•  o 
<3  ^  fe 

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«<  ^  C^ 

i 

.27 

M 

12 

.25 

2£ 

2.46 

23 

12 

5.75 

1 

.36 

A 

12 

.43 

3 

3.06 

Si 

12 

8.30 

i 

.49 

12 

.62 

2* 

3.50 

4 

12 

10.90 

£ 

.62 

T! 

12 

.92 

4 

4.02 

4j 

12 

12.70 

1 

.82 

i^ 

12 

1.25 

5 

5.04 

5.56 

8  to  10 

15.75 

1 

1.04 

i^ 

12 

1.70 

6 

6.06 

6.62 

6  to    8 

18.31 

11 

1.38 

i 

12 

2.50 

7 

7.02 

7.62 

Special 

26.28 

u 

1.61 

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12 

3.00 

8 

7.98 

8.62 

Special 

29.88 

2 

2.06 

<t 

12 

4.00 

283.   Hose  threads  are  made  in  two  standards:  iron  pipe 
sizes  and  Eastern  gage  hose  threads. 

TABLE  OF  OUTSIDE  DIAMETERS  AND  THREADS  PER  INCH. 


Size. 

I.  P.  T. 

E.  G.  H.  T. 

}  'n                      

Inches 
fX  14 

Inches 

*  in. 

X  14 

1A-  X  H 

1  in  

l^j  X  Hi 

IU  X  H 

1}  in  

1||  x  Hi 

Hi    X   H 

li  *n 

1^5     y    -Ql 

If  2  X  n 

2  in 

214-  X  11* 

221   x  71 

2i  in 

2*4  X  8 

3^  X  7 

3  in.  .  . 

3^r    X  8 

3£  X    7* 

284.  To  identify  pipe  lines  by  color.  —  To  avoid  confusion, 
mistakes,    and    accidents    in    power    plants,    steam-heating 
systems,  cold-storage  plant,  etc.,  labels  are  sometimes  attached 
to  the  valves  or  the  pipes  painted  in  different  colors;  as, 
steam  pipe,  white;  hot  water,  red;  cold  water,  blue,  etc. 

PIPE  FITTINGS. 

285.  Names  and  uses  of  pipe  fittings  in  charts,  Figs.  166 
and  167. 

Cast-iron  fittings  have  heavy  beads  of  rectangular  section 
for  strengthening  the  tapped  parts,  while  malleable  fittings 
have  lighter  brads  of  half-round  section.  In  the  charts  the 
fittings  illustrated  are  of  the  materials  named,  but  are  obtain- 
able in  other  materials. 


CHART  OF  PIPE  FITTINGS 


COUPLING  REDUCING  R.A  L. 

COUPLING       COUPLING 


ELBOW 
9QO 


REDUCING  R.A  L. 

ELBOW  ELBOW 

LEAD  LINED 

5  6 


UNION 
ELBOW 


D    cn 


TWIN 
ELBOW 


Y  BRANCH 


14 


DOUBLE 
Y  BRANCH 

15 


OFFSET 


RETURN 
BEND 

17 


BRANCH          CEILING  PLATE 
TEE          AND  PIPE  FLANGE 


UNION  UNION 

GASKET        GROUND          FLANGED 
JOINT  JOINT  UNION 

COPPER  GASKET 

20  21  22 


BUSHING 


23 


FLUSH 
BUSHING 

24 


SPACE 
NIPPLE 

26 


R.  A  L.  HOSE 

NIPPLE          NIPPLE 


ECCENTRIC 

REDUCING       ECCENTRIC 
COUPLING          BUSHING 


27 


28 


PLUG       FLUSH 
PLUG 

33 


FIG.  166. 


(119) 


120 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

W.  I.,  Wrought  Iron.  Cop.,  Copper. 

S.,  Steel.  R.,  Right  hand. 

C.  I.,  Cast  Iron.  L.,  Left  Hand. 

M.  I.,  Malleable  Iron.  O.  D.,  Outside  Diameter. 

B.,  Brass.  I.  D.,  Inside  Diameter. 

C.  S.,  Carbon  steel. 

Brass  fittings  are  obtainable  in  nearly  all  of  the  cast-iron  and  malleable- 
iron  patterns. 


No. 

NAME. 

USE. 

1 

Couplings,  S.  and  W.  I... 

To  connect  pipe  in  a  straight  line. 

2 

Reducing  coupling,  M.  I.  . 

To    connect   pipe   of   different  sizes  in    a 

straight  line. 

3 

R.  and  L.  coupling,  M.  I.. 

To  make  a  final  connection  between  pipe 

in  a  straight  line. 

4 

Elbow  (90°)   C.  I  

To  connect  pipe  at  right  angles. 

5 

Reducing    elbow,    C.     I. 

To  connect  pipe  of  different  sizes  at  right 

(lead  lined). 

angles.      For  acids  or  chemicals  is  lead 

lined. 

6 

R.  and  L.  elbow,  (90°)  C.I. 

To  make  a  final  connection  between  pipe 

at  right  angles. 

7 

Union  elbow,  M.  I.     Also 

Same  as  No.  4  and  No.  20  combined. 

made    with    outside 

thread  on  union  end. 

8 

Twin  elbow  C.I  

To   use   in   place   of   branch   headers   for 

steam  and  hot-water  heating. 

9 

45°   elbow,    M.    I.     Also 

To  connect  pipe  at  45°  or  22£°. 

made  22}°. 

10 

Tee  C  I 

To    connect   a    right-angle    branch   with 

main  pipe. 

11 

Reducing  tee,  C.  I.     Tin 

To    connect    pipe    of    different  sizes    in 

lined. 

straight  line  with    right-angle    branch. 

For  acids  or  chemicals  is  tin  lined. 

12 

Tight-  joint  Tee,  C.  I  

To  use  where  extra  tight  joints  are  re- 

quired,   as     air,     ammonia,     etc.     The 

channel  is  filled  with  lead  which  may  be 

tightened  with  screw. 

13 

Cross  C.  I  

To  connect  pipe  in  four  directions  (90°)  to 

each  other. 

PIPE    FITTINGS. 


121 


No. 


NAME. 


USE. 


14 
15 

16 
17 

18 
19 

20 

21 

22 
23 
24- 
25 

26 

27 

28 


Y  branch,  M.  I 

Double  Y  branch,  C.  I...  . 


Offset,  C.  I. 


Return  bend,  R.  and  L.,  C. 
I.,  close  pattern.  Also 
open  pattern. 


Branch  Tee,  C.  I. 


a.  Hinged  floor  or  ceiling 
plate. 

6.  Pipe  flange 

Union,  M.  I.  (gasket  joint) 


Brass  union  (ground  ball 
joint) . 


Flanged  union,  C.  I.  (gas- 
ket joint). 


Bushing,  M.  I.  or  B.. 


Flush  bushing,  M.  I.,  B., 
or  C.  I. 

Close  nipple,  W.  I.,  S., 
cast  brass  or  brass 
pipe. 

Space  nipple,  W.  I.  or  S.  . 

R.  and  L.  nipple,  M.  I 
(hex.  center). 


Hose  nipple,  B. 


A  45°  branch  connection. 

Two    45°    branch    connections    (screwed 
joint  drainage  type). 

A  substitute  for  bending  a  pipe  to  form  an 
offset. 

To    connect   and   return    as   in    radiating 
coils.     Left  end  also  made  ribbed. 


A  header  for  connecting  several  parallel 
pipes  for  steam  heating. 

To  protect  flooring  or  ceiling  around  pipe. 
Hinged  or  half  plates  may  be  put  up 
after  pipe  is  erected,  solid  plates  before. 

Unfinished,  for  columns. 

For  water.  Same  purpose  as  R.  and  L.  fit- 
tings, but  more  convenient  when  pipe 
is  occasionally  disconnected.  For  steam 
obtain  M.  I.  brass-lined  and  ground 
joint. 

Same  as  20  (water,  steam,  or  gas),  but 
more  serviceable  and  ornamental.  Used 
for  boiler  and  engine  fixtures  on  W. 
I.  or  S.  or  preferably  brass  pipe. 

Same  as  20,  but  for  large  pipe  and  where 
space  is  limited. 

To  connect  pipe  and  fitting  of  different 
sizes.  See  Reducing  fittings. 

Same  as  23,  but  where  space  is  limited. 


To  connect  two  fittings  closely. 


Same  as  25  but  for  fittings  further  apart. 

Similar  to  R.  and  L.  coupling  but  connects 
fittings  instead  of  pipe. 

To    connect    hose    fittings    to    iron    pipe 
sizes. 


122 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


No. 

NAME. 

USE. 

29 

Lock  nut  joint,  W.  I.  .  . 

Connection  between  tanks  or  fixed  piping 

30 

Lock  nut,  M.  I  

(screwed  joints). 
To    permit    adjustment    and  to    make  a 

31 
32 

33 

Eccentric  reducing    cou- 
pling, C.  I. 

Eccentric  bushing,  C.  I.  .  . 
Plug  C   I   (square) 

tight  joint  when  pipe  is  screwed  into 
thin  plate.      The  nuts  are  grooved  for 
wicking   and    pipe-joint    cement.        To 
connect  pipe  with  bottom  of  tank,  use 
lock  nuts  on  both  sides. 

To  connect  pipe  of  different  sizes  not   in 
alinemerit. 

To  connect  pipe  and  fitting  of  different 
sizes  not  in  alinement.     To  drain  radi- 
ators. 

To  close  opening  in  fitting 

34 

Flush  plug  C.  I 

Same  as  33   where  space  is  limited 

35 

Cap  M.  I    

To  close  end  of  pipe. 

36 

Cap   B.  (hex  head)  

Same  as  35  but  allows  for  use  of  monkey 

37 

Pipe  hanger,  M.  I  

wrench.     Hose  cap  made  same  form. 
To  support  a  single  pipe  from  ceiling  or 

38 

beam. 
To  support  several  pipes  from  ceiling,  as  a 

39 
40 

Wall  hanger,  single  pipe  .  . 
W^all  hanger 

heating  coil. 
To  support  a  single  pipe  on  wall. 
To  support  several  pipes  on  wall 

286.  Nearly  all  valves  except  small  sizes,  under  one  inch, 
which  are  always  brass,  are  obtainable  in  either  brass  or  cast 
iron.  Brass  may  be  plain  or  nickel  plated.  All  valves  are 
made  in  three  grades,  standard,  heavy,  and  extra  heavy. 


GLOBE 


CHART  OF  PIPE  FITTINGS  CONTINUED 

VALVES  &  COCKS 

GATE 


AIR  VALVES 

HOT  WATER 


NICKEL  PLATED  FITTINGS 

AUTOMATIC  SLIP  JOINT      SOREW  UNIVERSAL 

ELBOW      JOINT  TEE  STEAM  JOINT 

53    ^  54  55  56 


GAS 
TEE 

57 


DROP 
ELBOWS 

58  59 


GAS  FITTINGS 

SWING  JOINT  BASE,  PILLAR  AND  LAVA  TIP 

COCK  AND  SIDE  NOZZLE  OF  BURNER 

60  61        62       63  «,          64 


RAILING  FITTINGS 

ELBOW  TEE  SIDE     CROSS      ELBOW  FLANGES 

SIDE  OUTLET    TEE        OUTLET 

65         66         67          68         69          7Q          71 


ADJUSTABLE          BALL 
TEE  ORNAMENT 

72  73 


DRIVEN  &  BORED  WELL  FITTINGS 

DRIVE  POINT  COUPLING  CAP          SHOE 

74  75  76          77 


SAND  CHAMBER 

78 


£>    D 


0 


FIG.  167. 


(123) 


124 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


NAME. 


USE. 


Globe  valve,  B.  or  C.  I. .  . 

Gate  valve  (flange;,  B.  or 
C.  I. 

Steam  radiator  valve,  B.. 
Corner  valve,  B 


Hot-water  radiator  valve 
with  union,  B. 

Swing    check    valve,    B. 
(horizontal) . 


Cock,  B.  orC.  I 

Three-way  cock,  B.  or  C.  I 


Ammoniaexpansion  valve, 
M.I. 

Hydraulic  globe  valve,  B. 
or  C.  I. ' 

Air  and  steam  valve,  B .  . 

Air  valve,  B 

Automatic  air  valve,  B. .  . 


Double  slip  joint.  El- 
bow, brass  nickel- 
plated. 

Screw  joint  Tee.  Brass 
nickel-plated. 

Steam  joint.    Universal. 


To  shut  off  or  control  steam  or  water  pres- 
sure. 

Same  as  41.  Preferred  for  water.  Pres- 
sure either  direction. 

Same  as  41  but  for  steam  radiators. 

Same  as  41  and  43  but  to  connect  steam 
radiators  in  corners. 

For  hot-water  heating.  The  union  is 
easily  connected  or  disconnected. 

To  prevent  flow  except  in  one  direction. 
Used  on  pumps  and  boiler  feed  pipes. 

The  valves  are  also  made  to  operate  ver- 
tically. 

A  shut-off  for  steam,  water,  gas,  etc.  Pre- 
ferred to  a  valve  for  boiler  blow-off. 

To  change  direction  of  flow  of  steam,  oil, 
gas  or  water  from  one  point  to  another. 
To  exhaust  steam  from  engine  to  con- 
denser or  atmosphere.  A  substitute 
for  two  valves. 

For  ammonia  gas  in  refrigerating  plants. 


For  high  water  pressure  in  hydraulic 
machinery. 

To  blow  off  air  in  radiators,  etc. 
Same  as  51,  for  hot- water  radiators. 

For  steam  radiators.  Automatic  air 
valves  are  obtainable  for  hot-water 
radiators. 

Similar  to  a  union  for  nickel-plated  tub- 
ing. Used  for  drainage,  etc. 

For  nickel-plated  tubing.  Sanitary  pattern. 


For      connections      requiring      universal 
movement. 


PIPE    FITTINGS.  125 

GAS  FITTINGS,  MALLEABLE  IRON  AND  BRASS. 


No. 

NAME. 

USE. 

57 

Gas  Tee   MI.              ... 

Same  as  10  but  for  gas. 

58 

59 
60 
61 

Drop  elbow,  M.  I.     Inside 
thread. 

Drop  elbow,  M.  I.    Outside 
thread. 
Swing  joint  with  cock,  B. 

Side  nozzle   B 

Same  as  No.  4,  but  flanged  to  fasten  to 
wall  for  gas  connections. 

To  make  close  connection  with  swing  joint 
for  wall  bracket. 
To  make  wall  bracket  gas  light  with  59. 

Burner  connection. 

62 

Base   B 

Part  of  burner. 

63 

Pillar,  B       

Part  of  burner. 

64 

Lava  tip    

Part  of  burner. 

RAILING  FITTINGS,  MALLEABLE  IRON  OR  POLISHED  BRASS. 


No. 

NAME. 

USE. 

65 

Elbow  side  outlet      .    .  . 

To  connect  top  rail  and  post  at  corner. 

66 

Tee  

To  connect  intermediate  post  and  top  rail. 

67 

Tee,  side  outlet  

To   connect   intermediate   post,   top   and 

68 

Cross              

cross  rail,  and  for  same  purpose  as  65 
when  ornament  is  used. 

To  connect  rails  and  post  and  to  connect 

69 

Elbow  

top  rail  at  intermediate  post  when  orna- 
ment is  used. 

To  connect  top  single  rail  and  post. 

70 

Flanges  A  B 

To  connect  post  or  rail  with  floor  or  wall. 

71 

Angle  flange      

Obtainable  in  different  diameters  to  one 
size  thread. 

To  connect  angle  rail  with  wall. 

72 
73 

Adjustable  angle  fitting  .  . 
Ball  ornament 

To  connect  post,  horizontal  and  angle  rail. 
To  ornament  railings. 

126 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


Attention.  —  In  order  to  erect  a  railing  two  pipes  high,  the  upper 
outlet  of  fittings  used  in  lower  pipes  must  have  left-hand  thread. 
As  railing  joints  need  not  be  steam  or  water  tight,  it  is  permissible, 
if  necessary,  to  run  a  left  tap  into  a  right  threaded  fitting. 

Note.  —  Railing  fittings  more  ornamental  than  those  in  chart,  and 
also  brass  and  nickel-plated  fittings,  are  obtainable. 

FITTINGS   FOR  DRIVEN  AND^BORED   WELLS. 


No. 

NAME. 

USE. 

74 
75 

Drive  point,  M.  I.  point, 
W.  I.  strainer. 

Drive  coupling  M  I 

For  driven  wells. 
For  driven  and  bored  wells 

76 

Drive  Cap,  M.  I     .    . 

For  driven  wells 

77 

Drive  shoe,  S  

For  bored  wells. 

78 

Sand  chamber,  copper  or 
C.I. 

For  bored  wells.     To  separate  and  hold 
sand  and  protect  pump  valve. 

PIPE  TOOLS. 
287.    Names  and  uses  of  pipe  tools  in  chart,  Fig.  168. 

ABBREVIATIONS  . 

R.,  Right  hand.  N.,  Nickel. 

L.,  Left  hand.  P.,  Plated. 

Comb.,  Combination.  T.,  Tubing. 

C.  S.,  Carbon  steel. 


No. 


NAME. 


USE. 


Solid  pipe  die.  Iron  pipe 
size.  (C.  S.)  R.  or  L. 
thread. 

Solid  die.     Fixed  chasers, 

Die  stock.  Guide  bush- 
ing. 


Adjustable  die  stock . . . 


To  thread  pipe  by  hand. 


To  thread  pipe  by  hand. 

To  hold  solid  dies.  To  facilitate  starting 
dies  1^"  to  4*,  die  stock  has  threaded 
leader  same  pitch  as  die.  Ratchet  die 
stocks  are  used  to  thread  large  sizes  and 
where  space  is  limited. 

Dies  may  be  set  to  thread  standard  size 
or  adjusted  to  provide  for  variation  in 
fittings.  Dies  can  be  removed  and 
ground  at  emery  wheel  or  grindstone. 


CHART  OF  PIPE  TOOLS 


ADJUSTABLE 
DIE  STOCK 


QUICK  OPENING 

ADJUSTABLE 

DIE  STOCK 

5 


CUTTING  OFF 
ATTACHMENT 
FOR  DIE  STOCK 

6 


PIPE  THREADING  AND  CUTTING  OFF  MACHINES 

HAND  POWER 

(PORTABLE) 

7  8 


PIPE 
TAP 


AUTOMATIC 

ADJUSTABLE  COLLAPSING 
PIPE  TAP 

10 


COMB.DRILL  AND 
PIPE  TAP 

II 


PIPE 
REAMER 


PIPE  CUTTER 
WHEEL 

14 


PIPE  CUTTERS 
ONE  WHEEL  THREE  WHEEL 

16 


FIG.  168. 


(127) 


128 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


NAME. 


USE. 


Quick-opening  adjustable 
die  stock. 


Cutting-off      attachment 
for  die  stock. 


Hand  pipe- threading  and 
cutting-off  machine 
(portable) .  Quick- 
opening  die  head. 

Power  pipe-threading  and 
cutting-off  machine. 
Quick-opening  die  head. 
Motor  driven. 

Pipe  tap.  Taper  f*  to  1'. 
Iron  pipe  size.  (C.  S.) 
R.  or  L.  thread. 

Adjustable  automatic  col- 
lapsing pipe,  tap  R. 
or  L. 


Comb,  drill  and  pipe  tap. 
(C.  S.) 

Pipe  reamer,  fluted.     Ta- 
per I"  to  1".     (C.   S.) 

Pipe  reamer  or  burr  re- 
mover.    (C.  S.) 

Pipe  cutter  wheel.    (C.  S.) 


Pipe  cutter.       Single 
wheel. 


Pipe    cutter.       Three 
wheels. 


Chasers  will  thread  wide  range  of  sizes. 
One  set  (4)  will  thread  pipe  I",  l±",  H", 
and  2"  (11£  threads).  When  thread  is 
cut  die  is  opened  and  removed  without 
backing  off. 

A  device  to  attach  to  stock  No.  5  to  cut  off 
pipe  by  hand.  Operate  like  lathe  cut- 
ting-off  tool. 

To  thread  larger  pipe  than  can  be  done 
with  die  and  stock  by  hand.  Has  cut- 
ting-off  attachment.  Same  can  be 
operated  by  crank  or  by  ratchet. 

To  thread  and  cut  off  large  pipe  or  large 
lots  of  pipe  of  any  size. 


To  tap  a  pipe  thread  in  boiler,  pipe  fitting, 
or  other  apparatus  to  receive  threaded 
pipe.  Straight  tubes  are  obtainable. 

To  thread  pipe  fittings,  etc.,  by  power  used 
in  special  tapping  machines  or  any  tur- 
ret head  machine.  Collapses  automati- 
cally when  thread  is  tapped  and  is  with- 
drawn without  reversing  machine. 

To  ratchet  drill  and  tap  holes  to  receive 
threaded  pipe.  See  Ratchet,  No.  35. 

To  ream  holes  to  proper  taper  before  tap- 
ping. Thin  plates  may  be  tapped  with- 
out reaming  taper. 

To  remove  burr  from  inside  pipe  made  by 
pipe  cutter. 

This  sharp-edged  wheel  forces  the  pipe  off 
evenly  all  around.  Strictly  speaking,  it 
does  not  cut  it  off. 

Stock  and  cutter  wheel.  To  cut  pipe  to 
lengths.  It  is  placed  on  pipe,  block 
screwed  down,  and  handle  moved  for- 
ward in  a  circle. 

To  cut  off  pipe  to  lengths  more  rapidly 
than  single  wheel.  Can  be  used  where 
space  is  limited  with  strokes  back  and 
forth,  and  to  cut  off  pipes  in  the  thread. 


PIPE    TOOLS. 


129 


NAME. 


USE. 


Ratchet  pipe  cutter. .  . 
Hinged  pipe  vise,  M.  I. 

Comb,  pipe  vise,  C.  I.. 
Stillson  pipe  wrench .  . 


Auto,  pipe  wrench 
Chain  pipe  wrench. 
Pipe  tap  wrench. . . 
Pipe  pliers 


Pipe  tongs. 


Monkey  wrench 


Nipple  holder.    Commer- 
cial. 

Nipple    holder.      "Home- 
made. 


Pipe-bending  form. 


Flange  wrench 


Pipe- joint  cement  or  mix- 
ture. 


Oil  can.      Lard  oil , 


To  cut  off  pipe  where  space  will  not  allow 
ordinary  pipe  cutter  to  be  rotated. 

To  hold  pipe  to  thread,  cut  off,  make  or 
unmake  joints.  Is  bolted  to  bench  or 
post. 

Same  as  18  and  with  plain  jaws  and  fittings 
for  rectangular  work. 

To  make  or  unmake  screwed  connections 
of  pipe  fittings.  May  also  be  used  for 
bolts  and  rodss 

Same  as  20,  another  type. 

Same  as  20,  for  large  pipe  and  fittings. 

To  operate  taps  and  reamers. 

Same  as  20,  for  very  small  pipe  and  gas 
connections. 

Same  as  20;  used  for  radiator  coils  where 
space  is  limited.  Also  made  adjustable. 

For  union,  bolt  and  nut  connections,  etc. 
To  hold  nipple  to  thread  blank  end. 


Same  as  27;  convenient  for  short  or  very 
large  nipples,  also  to  use  in  machines. 

To  bend  pipe  to  a  desired  shape.  Forma 
to  suit  special  cases  may.  be  sawed  out 
of  wood.  To  bend  pipe,  fill  with  sand 
plug  end,  and  bend  cold  or  hot. 

To  make  up  or  take  off  flanges.  Better 
than  bar  or  bolt. 

To  lubricate  pipe  thread  and  to  make  joints 
tight. 

To  lubricate  dies  and  cutting-off  tools  for 
wrought  iron  or  steel  pipe  and  taps  for 
wrought  iron,  steel,  cast  and  malleable 
iron.  (See  Brass  pipe  tools.) 


288.    Names  and  uses  of  pipe  tools  in  chart,  Fig.  169. 


CHART  OF  PIPE  TOOLS    CONTINUED 


NIPPLE  HOLDERS 
COMMERCIAL  HOME  MADE 

27  28 


HP > 


BRASS  PIPE  AND  TUBING  TOOLS 


PLUMBERS' SIZE 

OR  FINE  THREAD  TOOLS 

DIE  TAP 

37  38 


TOOLS  FOR  NICKEL  PLATED  TUBING 

DIE  STOCK 

45 


TAP 

46 


(130) 


FIG.  169. 


PIPE    TOOLS. 


131 


No. 


34 


35 


36 


NAME. 


Half-round    Bastard     or 
2d  cut  file  (10"  to  14*). 


Screw  clamp. 


Ratchet  drill. 


Pipe  tool  chest. 


USE. 


To  mark  off  lengths  by  filing  nicks  in  which 
to  start  wheels  of  pipe  cutter.  To  re- 
move burrs  and  for  smoothing  opera- 
tions. 

To  hold  pipe  temporarily  in  position  and 
for  general  purposes. 

To  drill  holes  in  boiler,  pipe  or  other  appa- 
ratus to  be  tapped  that  cannot  be 
brought  conveniently  to  a  drilling  ma- 
chine. 

To  keep  safely  and  tq  ship  pipe  tools. 


PLUMBERS'  SIZES  OR  FINE  THREAD  PIPE  TOOLS. 

Plumbers'  Drawn  Seamless  Brass  Pipe  or  Tubing  is  Measured  at  the  Outside. 


No. 


NAME. 


USE. 


37 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


Plumbers'  size  or  fine 
thread  die.,  (O.  D.). 
Taper  f"  to  I". 

Plumbers'  size  or  fine 
thread  tap,  standard 
diameter.  Taper  £  "  to 


Pipe   vise   with   jaws   to 
hold  brass  pipe. 


Brass-pipe  wrench. 


Roller  pipe  cutter. 
Hack  saw .  . 


To   thread   tubing.     Fits   iron    pipe    die- 
stock  No.  3. 


To  tap  a  fine  thread  in  plates,  fittings,  ap- 
paratus, etc.,  to  receive  threaded  tubing. 


To  hold  polished  or  nickel-plated  pipe  or 
tubing  while  threading  or  cutting  off. 
For  very  nice  work,  line  jaws  with  lead 
or  use  wooden  jaws. 

To  make  or  unmake  screwed  connections 
of  polished  or  nickel-plated  pipe,  tubing 
or  fitting.  For  very  nice  work,  line 
jaws  with  lead. 


To  cut  off  brass  pipe  or  tubing, 
small  pipe  use  hack  saw. 


For  very 


Shears . 


To  cut  off  brass  pipe  and  tubing  use  saw 
with  22  teeth.  For  general  purposes 
use  saw  with  14  teeth. 

For  cutting  sheet  metal,  wire,  etc. 


132 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


NICKEL-PLATED   BRASS  TUBING   \"  TO   2"  OUTSIDE   DIAM- 
ETER,  28  THREADS. 


No. 


NAME. 


USE. 


44 

45 
46 

47 


Nickel-plated  (brass)  tub- 
ing die,  28  threads  per 
inch.  Taper  J/  to  I". 

N.  P.  T.  die  stock 

N.  P.  T.  tap,  28  threads. . 


Plumbers'  torch,  gasoline 
or  kerosene. 


For  threading  nickel-plated  brass  tubing. 


To  hold  N.  P.  T.  die. 

To  tap  N.  P.  T.  thread  in  plates,  fittings, 
etc. 

To  heat  pipe  to  bend  to  form  (see  No.  29), 
for  soldering,  etc. 


Attention.  —  Pipe  dies  and  taps  are  designated  by  the  nominal 
sizes  of  the  pipes  they  are  used  upon,  and  not  by  their  actual  diam- 
eters. A  V  pipe,  die  or  tap,  is  about  1 J"  diameter  which  is  the  bore 
of  the  pipe  plus  twice  the  thickness  of  the  pipe. 

A  ball-peen  hammer  is  used  to  loosen  fittings  that  they  may  be 
unscrewed  easily,  and  to  break  off  cast  iron  fittings  when  necessary. 


HAND  AND  MACHINE  METHODS  OF  PIPING. 

289.  Hand  method  of  threading,  cutting  off  pipe,  and  mak- 
ing up  pipe  joints.  —  One  person  can  thread  or  cut  off  pipe 
by  hand  up  to  1",  and  with  an  assistant  and  die  stock  with 
threaded  leader  up  to  2".  For  larger  sizes,  a  hand  or  power 
pipe-threading  and  cutting-off  machine  is  needed. 


PIPE    THREADING    BY    HAND. 


133 


290.    To  thread  pipe,  hand  method.     Fig.  170.    Right-hand 
thread. 


PIPE 

JOINT 

CEMENT 


FIG.  170. 
SCHEDULE  OF   OPERATIONS. 


Place  £"  W.I.  pipe  A  in  pipe 
vise  B,  with  end  clear  of  bench  C, 
and  clamp  pipe.  Place  I"  R.  H. 
solid  die  marked  side  up  in  front, 
and  f"  guide  bushing  in  back  of 
diestock  D,  and  clamp.  Remove 
burr  from  end  of  pipe  with  half- 
round  file  E. 

Freely  oil  end  of  pipe  with  lard 
oil  from  can  F,  Place  bushing  end 
of  diestock  on  pipe  and  start  die. 
Stand  well  back,  and  with  hands 
near  the  center  of  the  stock, 
press  hard  on  handles ;  at  same  time 
rotate  handles  to  right  through  a 
quarter  circle  and  change  hands. 


Press  hard  and  again  rotate  a 
quarter  circle.  Then  move  hands 
out  as  shown  and  occasionally  ro- 
tate backward  slightly,  to  allow 
chips  to  drop,  and  continue  for- 
ward and  backward  with  less  pres- 
sure, using  plenty  of  lard  oil 
through  opening  of  die,  until  end 
of  pipe  is  even  with  front  of  die. 
Remove  diestock  and  try  on 
fitting,  which  should  go  on  at 
least  three  threads  with  the  hand. 
To  cut  left-hand  thread,  place 
left-threaded  die  in  diestock  and 
turn  handles  to  left. 


Attention. —  Large  pipe  is  often 
ustable  dies.     See  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  7, 


threaded  with  two  cuts  with  ad- 
and  8,  Fig.  168. 


134 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


91.    To    make    up    screwed   pipe    joint.     Hand    method. 
Fig.   171. 


FIG. 171. 
SCHEDULE   OF  OPERATIONS. 


Place  pipe  A  in  swivel  pipe 
vise  B  and  thread.  With  brush  or 
stick  apply  cement  or  pipe-joint 
mixture  C  to  first  three  threads 
in  fitting  or  on  pipe.  Screw  elbow 
D  on  by  hand  and  with  Stillson 
pipe  wrench  E  make  joint  tight. 
Then  as  a  matter  of  cleanliness, 
with  waste  G  (or  cloth)  wipe  all 


surplus  cement  from  pipe  and 
fitting  at  H. 

Attention.  —  The  wrench  may 
be  held  on  fitting  with  left  hand 
while  operating  handle  with  right. 

Note.  —  Vise  B  is  a  type  of  plain 
vise  with  heavily  milled  jaws  of 
great  gripping  power  and  much 
used  in  commercial  work. 


292.    To  cut  off  pipe,  hand  method.     Fig.  172. 


FIG.  172. 


PIPE  THREADING  BY  HAND. 


135 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Place  pipe  A  in  vise  B  so  that 
desired  length  will  clear  end  of 
bench  C.  Lay  off  length  with  rule 
D.  and  mark  with  file  E.  Place 
pipe  cutter  F  on  pipe  so  that 
wheel  cutter  G  comes  on  mark. 
Drop  lard  oil  on  pipe  and  cutter, 
then  press  handle  of  pipe  cutter 
downward. 

At  each  revolution  of  cutter, 
move  backward  a  little  and  rotate 


handle  to  feed  cutter  inward  pro- 
ceeding thus  until  pipe  is  cut  off. 
Reverse  pipe  in  vise  and  thread 
blank  end. 

Attention. —  In  commercial  pip- 
ing unnecessary  handling  of  pipe  is 
avoided  by  passing  pipe  through 
vise  far  enough  to  cut  off  desired 
length,  and  allow  remainder  to  be 
threaded  before  laying  away. 


293.   Problem  in  pipe  fitting.   Fig.  173.  —  Make  up  parts  in 
alphabetical  order,  as  A,  B,  C,  and  D.     Measurements  are  taken 


fit 
R&L. 


FIG.  173.  —  SCHEDULE  DRAWING  OF  PROBLEM  IN  PIPE  FITTING. 


from  center  of  one  fitting  to  the  center  of  the  next.      To 
secure  this,  it  is  best,  when  possible,  to  make  up  tight  each 


136 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


successive  pipe  or  fitting  before  attaching  the  next  or  cutting 
off  pipe,  for  more  accurate  measurements  may  be  thus  ob- 
tained. 


SCHEDULE   OF  OPERATIONS. 


Place  a  f"  pipe  in  vise  and 
clamp.  If  not  threaded,  thread 
R.  H.  (width  of  die),  (1). 

With  hand,  screw  right  end  of 
I"  R.  and  L.  C.  I.  elbow  (2)  on  pipe 
and  make  tight  with  Stillson  as  in 
Fig.  171.  Mark  with  file  the 
distance  fitting  goes  on,  unscrew 
and  measure  this  distance  with 
wooden  rule,  (f"  fitting  may  go 
on  about  &",  and  this  information 
is  necessary  to  know  where  to 
cut  off  pipe  for  the  next  fitting.) 
Then  make  up  joint.  A  fitting 
adds  to  the  length  of  a  pipe,  and 
the  amount  the  pipe  is  screwed 
into  the  fitting  is  subtracted  from 
length  of  pipe. 

Select  a  I"  X  %"  C.  I.  reducing 
elbow  and  measure  its  effective 
length  from  face  to  center,  as 
in  Fig.  174.  A  I"  elbow  may 
be  IjV'  in  length.  Pass  pipe 
through  vise  and  clamp.  Meas- 
ure off  on  pipe  from  center  E  IS" 
(distance  from  E  to  F),  less  Iffc", 
length  of  elbow,  plus  T§",  length 


of  thread,  mark  and  cut  off  pipe 
Then  thread  R.  H.  (3),  apply  ce- 
ment, screw  on  elbow  (4)  and  make 


REDUCING  ELBOW 


gJlCENTER 


FIG.  174.  —  MEASURING  LENGTH  OF 
FITTINGS  FACE  TO  CENTER. 


up  joint.  Aline  elbows  and  meas- 
ure. If  within  T^"  of  18",  it  is 
good.  If  too  long,  die  may  be 
run  on  further.  Part  B  is  made 
up  in  order  (6),  (7),  (5),  (8),  (9). 
Note  how  far  £"  pipe  enters  a 
fitting.  Also  measure  length  of 
elbow  (9). 

Cement  all  connections. 

Attention.  —  In  screwing  up 
bushings  it  is  best  to  make  up 
the  larger  thread  first  to  avoid 
splitting  the  bushing. 


294.   To  make  right  and  left  connections.    Fig.  173. — Right 
and  left  connections  are  here  used  on  both  sides  on  account  of 


PIPE    THREADING    BY    HAND. 


137 


the  stiffness  of  short  pipes.  If  problem  called  for  long  pipes, 
they  would  spring  sufficiently  to  necessitate  R.  and  L.  connec- 
tions on  one  side  only. 

SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Place  parts  A  and  B  on  bench 
with  G,  H,  centers  16"  apart  and 
parallel.  Then  measure  for  pipes 
C  and  D,  allowing  for  threaded 
ends.  Thread  and  cut  required 
pipes,  threading  one  end  of  each 
left  hand. 

Count  Threads.  —  Screw  pipe 
(10)  by  hand  or  wrench,  into  (7) 
without  cement.  Chalk  line  on 
pipe  and  fitting  as  at  (5)  and  note 
number  of  turns  it  takes  to 
unscrew  pipe;  repeat  with  left 
end  (11),  also  (13)  and  (13). 

If  both  right  and  left  ends  take 
same  number  of  turns  to  make 
tight,  both  pipes  may  be  coated 
with  cement  and  started  together. 
If,  for  example,  right  end  (10) 


takes  4  turns  and  left  end  (11)  but 
3  turns  to  make  tight,  start  right 
end  (10)  one  turn  before  left  (11). 
Use  same  method  with  (12)  and 
(13),  then  screw  pipes  alternately 
to  make  tight. 

Dimensions  should  be  correct 
within  ]V'.  To  test  joints,  at- 
tach (14)  to  steam  pipe  with  a 
pressure  of  100  Ibs.  (or  water 
200  Ibs.),  and  turn  on  pressure. 
If  there  is  no  leak,  problem  is 
finished  and  said  to  be  steam 
tight.  If  leaks  show  at  R.  and  L. 
joints,  it  means  that  R.  and  L. 
joints  were  not  accurately  counted, 
that  is,  that  one  joint  did  not 
makeup  tight.  Unscrew(lO),  (11), 
(12),  and  (13)  and  count  in  again. 


295.  Pipe  coils  and  bends. — Pipe  coils  of  steel,  wrought  iron, 
brass,  or  copper  pipe  or  tubing  are  used  for  heating,  refrigerat- 
ing, and  condensing  purposes.  The  large  bends  are  used  for 
high-pressure  steam  and  exhaust  piping. 

Coils  and  bends  are  made  cold  or  by  heating  and  bending 
on  special  pipe-bending  machines,  as  the  electric  welding  and 
bending  machine  and  hydraulic  coiling  and  bending  machine. 
If  the  radius  is  large  compared  with  diameter,  the  pipe  may 
be  bent  cold,  but  if  radius  is  small,  it  is  necessary  to  heat  the 
pipe  before  bending. 


138 


ELEMENTS  OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


296.   To  thread  3"  pipe  with  hand  pipe -threading  machine, 
I"  to  4".     Fig.  175. 


FIG.  175. 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Release  screws  B,  B'  and  move 
setting  lever  C  until  letters  AA 
on  machine  coincide.  Remove 
four  dies  (one  is  shown  at  D)  and 
replace  with  3"  dies  E.  Move 
lever  C  until  graduations  f  coin- 
cide, then  lock  screws  B,  B'. 
Mount  pipe  F  in  chuck  and  clamp 
with  wheel  G.  Throw  in  back 
gears  H  (for  large  pipe  only); 
lubricate  pipe  and  dies  with  lard 
oil.  With  lever  C  in  its  notch 
move  pipe  to  dies  (to  start  thread 
only)  with  wheel  /,  and  rotate 
crank  handle  K  to  thread  pipe. 
To  release  dies,  throw  lever  C 


against  stop  pin.  Remove  pipe  and 
throw  lever  back  in  notch  again 
to  reset  dies  to  duplicate  thread. 

Note.  —  For  pipe  1 J"  and  less, 
use  bushing  L  to  steady  dies. 

Caution.  —  Avoid  backing  dies 
off  thread. 

To  cut  off  pipe  with  hand  ma- 
chine. —  Release  dies  and  clamp 
pipe  in  chuck  lightly.  Place  pin 
M  in  hole  N  and  bring  guide  jaws 
against  pipe  just  back  of  dies  to 
center,  and  hold  pipe  while  cut- 
ting off;  then  clamp  pipe  in  chuck 
hard.  Move  cutting-off  tool 
(shown  in  detail  at  P)  to  pipe  with 


PIPE    THREADING    WITH    MACHINE. 


139 


handle  Q  placed  on  star  wheel  R. 
Swing  pawl  S  forward  to  obtain 
automatic  star  feed.  Lubricate 
tool,  and  rotate  crank  handle  K 
to  cut  off  pipe. 


Note.  —  The  guide  jaws  are 
often  used  to  steady  pipe  when 
threading. 

This  machine  is  also  used  for 
threading  bolts  and  rods. 


297.   To  thread  12"  pipe  with  power  pipe -threading  machine 

3"  to  18",  Fig.  176. 


L 7  SHIPPER 


CHASER 


FIG.  176. 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


Remove  chasers  from  die  head 
1  and  replace  with  12"  die  (8 
chasers;  one  is  shown  at  2).  Set 
(0)  zero  lines  to  cut  12"  pipe  on 
graduated  scale  back  of  die  head 
as  shown  in  detail  at  3. 

Clamp  pipe  4  in  chuck  5  (also 
in  chuck  5'  for  long  pipe).  With 
pilot  wheel  6  move  die  head 
to  pipe  (to  start  thread  only). 


With  shipper  7  start  machine, 
lubricate  pipe  with  lard  oil  from 
oil  pump  through  pipe  8  and  hold 
lever  9  down  while  threading.  To 
terminate  thread,  release  dies  by 
throwing  lever  9  up.  Then  stop 
machine  and  remove  pipe. 

Adjustments  of  .001"  are  ob- 
tained by  hand  nut  10. 

To  cut  off  pipe.  —  Move  pipe 


140 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


out  through  die  head,  clamp  in 
chucks  5  and  5'  and  steady  with 
guides  11,  11'.  Lubricate  tool, 
start  machine  and  cut  off  pipe  with 
tool  12  operated  with  hand  wheel 
13. 

Various  speeds  are  obtained  by 
a  3-step  cone  and  back  gears. 
These  machines  are  often  motor 


driven.  This  machine  is  also  used 
for  threading  bolts  and  rods. 

Attention. — Pipe  cutting-off  ma- 
chines are  obtainable  which  oper- 
ate rolling  cutters  to  cut  off  pipe 
similarly  to  hand  pipe  cutters. 

Nipples  are  usually  cut  in  ma- 
chines. See  nipple  holder  in 
chart,  Fig.  169. 


298.  To  make  up  a  large  pipe  joint  by  power.  —  To  save 
labor,  large  pipe  joints  are  often  made  up  with  power  pipe- 
threading  machines,  as  in  Fig.  177. 


FIG.  177. 


Mount  Tee  A  in  chuck  B.  Lift  pipe  C  with  chain  hoist  D 
and  start  pipe  into  tee  by  hand.  Hold  pipe  with  chain  tongs  E 
with  handle  resting  on  floor.  Start  machine  with  shipper  F, 
and  stop  when  joint  is  made  up. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

STRAIGHTENING   AND    BENDING.       PEENING    AND    RIVETING. 
HAND    DRILLING. 

STRAIGHTENING  AND  BENDING. 

299.  To  straighten  or  bend  bars  or  sheets  of  metal.  —  Place 
flat  bar  A,  Fig.  178,  concave  side  down  and  over  square  hole 
in  anvil  B,  straighten  with  the  face  (not  the  corner)  of 


hammer  C. 


FIG.  178.  —  STRAIGHTENING  FLAT 
STOCK  ON  ANVIL. 


FIG.  179.  —  STRAIGHTENING  ROUND 
STOCK  ON  ANVIL. 


Round  bar  A,  Fig.  179,  is  placed  concave  side  down  on 
anvil  B.  Swage  C  is  held  on  bar  while  a  helper  strikes  swage 
with  a  sledge. 

300.  To  test  and  straighten  centered  shafts  in  a  lathe.  -*- 
Unturned  work  that  is  centered  is  tested  by  rotating  it  in  lathe 
and  marking  with  chalk.  For  finished  work,  use  copper  tool 
held  in  tool  post  or  a  test  indicator  shown  at  A,  Fig.  180. 


FIG.  180.  —  TESTING  AND  STRAIGHTENING  SHAFT  IN  LATHE. 
141 


142  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 

Shank  B  is  held  in  tool  post;  the  cross  feed  is  fed  inward 
until  feeler  C  touches  revolving  shaft  D,  when  pointer  E  will 
indicate  error  in  thousandths  of  an  inch.  With  piece  F  for 
fulcrum  and  bar  G,  the  shaft  is  straightened.  Sometimes  it 
is  necessary  to  peen  shaft  by  a  few  light  blows  of  hammer 
on  upper  side,  struck  while  shaft  is  pressed  upward. 

301.   Straightening  press,  Fig.  181. — If  shaft  A  is  centered,  it 
is  tested  by  mounting  on  centers  B  and  B';  if  not  centered,  it 


FIG.  181.  —  STRAIGHTENING  SHAFT  WITH  STRAIGHTENING  PRESS. 

is  tested  by  sighting  along  its  length  and  marking  with  chalk 
or  metal  workers'  crayon  (soapstone).  It  is  placed  on  sup- 
ports C  and  C'  with  its  high  side  under  screw  D*  and  pres- 
sure is  applied  with  screw  D  and  lever  E. 

PEENING  AND  RIVETING. 

'302.  Peening  metal. — To  hammer  one  side  in  order  to 
stretch  that  side  to  straighten  the  work  or  to  otherwise  alter 
its  shape:  Work  A,  Fig.  182,  is  placed  convex  side  down  on 
anvil  B  and  struck  with  the  ball  peen  of  hammer  C.  The 
blows  should  be  quick  and  light  to  stretch  the  metal  on  one 


FIG.  182.  —  PEENING  WORK  TO  STRAIGHTEN. 

side  only.  The  metal  will  be  stretched  where  the  blows  are 
struck,  and  if  striking  is  continued  over  the  whole  surface, 
the  concave  side  may  be  made  equal  in  length  to  the  convex 
side  thus  straightening  the  surface. 


RIVETING. 


143 


303.  Riveting.  —  Riveting  is  the  process  of  fastening  two 
or  more  pieces  of   metal  together  by  means  of  a  soft  metal 
rod  or  wire  having  usually  a  head  on  one  end.      The  rivet 
is  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  work  and  its  headless  end  is 
spread    by   hammering    or  peening   until   a   second   head  is 
formed.      The  work    may  be    done   by  a   press,  hammer   or 
pneumatic  riveter.     The  rivet  may  be  headed  hot  or  cold. 

304.  Copper  rivets  are  often  employed  to  fasten  metal, 
leather,  or  other  material  together.     The  rivet  is  inserted,  and 
usually  a  washer,  called  a  burr,  is  put  over  the  point,  then  the 
point  is  riveted  with  a  hammer  or  preferably  with  a  cup- 
shaped  tool. 

305.  Flush  riveting.     Fig.  183.  —  Countersink  pieces  A  and 
B  for  soft-steel  rivet  C,  as  at  D  and  D' '.     "Upon  anvil  E  with 

'hammer  F  head  rivet  to  fill  countersinks.  Strike  with  light 
blows,  principally  near  edge  of  rivet.  Then  file  flush  with  work 
and  polish. 


FIG.  183.  —  RIVETING  PLATES. 


FIG.  184.  —  RIVETING  CRANK  PIN. 


306.  Riveting  crank  pin  A,  Fig.  184,  to  crank  B.  —  Coun- 
tersink hole  C  and  hollow  out  pin  as  at  D.  Place  head  of  pin 
on  babbitt  block  E,  with  peen  hammer  ^  strike  light  quick 
blows  equally  around  pin  to  draw  it  tight.  Finish  end  of  pin 
after  riveting. 


144 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


HAND   DRILLING. 

307.  Hand  drilling  machines  are  used  in  erecting  or  repair- 
ing machinery,  to   drill  holes  in  the  frame  or  other  parts 
which    cannot    be    conveniently  taken    to  a  power    drilling 
machine,  and  when  no  portable  power  drilling  machine,  as 
a  pneumatic  or  electrically  driven  hand  drill,  is  at  hand. 

308.  Breast  drilling  machine  (breast  drill),  Fig.  185,  is  for 
drilling  small  holes  as  clearly  shown  in  the  illustration. 


FIG.  185.  —  DRILLING  WITH  BREAST  DRILLING  MACHINE. 


SCHEDULE  OF  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


A  —  Spindle. 

B—  Breast  plate  to  press  on  with 
body  to  give  feed. 
C — Chuck;  runs  free  on  spindle. 
D-  Drill. 
E  —  Driving  crank. 


F— Bevel  gear  fast  to  crank. 

G— Bevel  gear  attached  to 
chuck;  runs  free  on  spindle. 

H—  Idler  gear. 

K  —  Handle  to  support  and 
steady  machine. 


HAND    DRILLING 


145 


309.  Ratchet  drilling  machine  (ratchet  drill),  Fig.   186,  is 
for  drilling  larger  holes. 


FIG.  186.  —  DRILLING  WITH  RATCHET  DRILLING  MACHINE. 


SCHEDULE  OF  PARTS  AND  OPERATIONS. 


A—  Flat  ratchet  drill. 

B  —  Head  with  square  tapered 
hole  to  hold  drill. 

C  —  Brace,  located  at  will. 

D  —  Work  to  be  drilled ;  locate 
and  draw  drill  in  usual  way. 

#- Foot  plate. 

F—  Clamp ;  use  a  bolt  instead, 
if  convenient. 

G  —  Center;  fits  depression  in 
underside  of  arm. 

H— Arm  fastened  to  brace  by 
nut. 

J  —Handle  to  revolve  drill  part 


of  a  stroke  at  a  time  by  means  of 
the  ratchet  mechanism. 

X-Pawl. 

L—  Ratchet  wheel  fast  on  head 
B. 

M—  Threaded  sleeve;  to  obtain 
feed,  keep  sleeve  from  rotating 
by  holding  with  the  hand  to  feed. 

N—  Hole  to  insert  pin  to  hold 
sleeve  to  feed,  if  necessary,  after 
drill  is  started. 

P—  Pawl,  to  reverse  action  of 
ratchet  L. 


Attention. — Instead  of  a  flat  drill,  a  square  shank  twist  drill 
may  be  obtained,  or  a  socket  for  regular  taper  and  straight 
twist  drills  may  be  used. 


CHAPTER  X. 

SOLDERING.     BRAZING.     BABBITTING. 
SOLDERING. 

310.  Soldering  and  brazing  are  processes  for  uniting  metals 
by  means  of  an  alloy  that  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
the  metals  to  be  united. 

311.  Soldering  is  done  with  a  fusible  alloy  of  tin  and  lead, 
which  melts  at  a  low  temperature,  below  500°,  and  is  used  to 
unite  surfaces  of  metals  that  are  not  subject  to  great  stress  or 
heat. 

312.  Soft  solder  consists  of  two  parts  of  tin  and  one  of  lead, 
and  melts  at  340°  F.     A  more  fusible  solder  is  made  by  adding 
bismuth.      Tinsmiths  use  solder  composed  of  one  part  tin 
and  one  of  lead,  which  melts  at  370°  F. 

313.  Flux  for  soldering.  —  Parts  to  be  soldefed  must  be 
chemically  clean;  that  is,  all  oxide  must  be  removed  from  the 
surfaces  to  be  united,  by  filing  or  scraping,  to  insure  a  perfect 
joint.     To  prevent  oxides  from  forming  during  the  soldering 
and  to  promote  the  flow  of  solder,  a  flux  (chloride  of  zinc,  or 
resin)  is  used.     Chloride  of  zinc  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
pieces   of   zinc   in   hydrochloric   acid    (muriatic    acid)    until 
effervescence  ceases.     This  solution  is  then  strained  and  put 
in  a  bottle  with  a  glass  stopper.     For  soldering  brass  it  is  best 
to  dilute  with  water. 

For  copper  and  galvanized  metals,  undiluted  hydrochloric 
acid  is  often  used. 

314.  Soldering-iron  D,  Fig.  187,  is  made  of  copper,  and  is 
pointed  at  one  end. 

315.  Tin  soldering-iron  before  using.  —  Heat  iron  until  it 
will  just  melt  solder;  shape  and  brighten  its  point  with  a  file 
and  dip  into  acid,  then  apply  to  a  stick  of  solder  until  it  is 
"  tinned  "  or  coated. 

146 


SOLDERING. 


147 


316.   To  solder  two  pieces  of  brass  tube  to  make  an  elbow. 

Fig.  187. 


F- 

SOLDERING          J 
ACID          WIRING 
CLOTH 


FIG.  187.  —  SOLDERING  WITH  SOLDERING  IRON. 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


1.  Clean  and  brighten  surfaces 
of  work  A  to  be  soldered  by  filing 
and  fasten  to  plank  B  on  bench  C. 

2.  Heat  iron  D  in  heater  E, 
rub  acid  F  on  joint,  clean  iron 


with  cloth,  then  with  solder  G  and 
iron  D  tack  elbow  with  a  drop  of 
solder  at  outer  and  inner  edges, 
then  pass  solder  and  iron  along 
seam  to  complete  the  joint. 


Attention.  —  If  solder  does  not  "run"  properly,  use  a  little  more 
acid  and  repeat  operation.  Irons  D  and  H  are  used  for  straight 
work,  swivel  iron  K  for  work  which  a  straight  iron  could  not  reach. 

317.  Soldering  by  sweating  is  a  process  of  heating  the  pieces 
to  be  united  in  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner,  blowpipe,  or  forge 
fire.  After  the  pieces  are  sufficiently  heated,  acid  and  solder 
are  applied  directly  to  the  surfaces  to  be  joined,,  the  parts 
are  again  heated  until  the  solder  fuses  and  flows  to  tin  the 
surfaces,  when  the  pieces  may  be  rubbed  hard  together, 
alined,  and  allowed  to  cool. 


148 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


Caution.  —  Thoroughly  brighten  the  work,  place  flux  in 
proper  place,  apply  heat  where  solder  is  expected  to  flow,  and 
never  use  heat  enough  to  burn  the  solder. 

Note.  —  A  combined  soft  solder  and  flux  is  obtainable,  in 
either  stick  form  or  paste,  which  cleanses  and  solders  in  one 
operation. 

BRAZING. 

318.  Brazing  or  hard  soldering  serves  to  unite  metals  to 
endure  high  temperature  and  severe  stress.     Use  a  solder 
slightly  lower  in  melting  point  and  similar  in  hardness  and 
malleability  to  metals  to  be  united. 

319.  Brazing  solder  or  hard  solder,  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  copper  and  zinc,  is  obtainable  granulated  or  in  form  of  wire, 
and  melts  at  1800°  F.     Brass  wire  and  granulated  brass,  often 
called  spelter,  are  also  used.     For  soldering  gold,  use  solder 
composed  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper;  for  silver,  silver  and 
copper;  for  platinum,  fine  gold. 

320.  Flux  for  brazing.  —  Specially  prepared  borax  is  used 
to  unite  with  the  metallic  oxide  and  clean  joint,  also  to  pre- 
vent oxide  forming  during  brazing. 


G 

SPELTER 


FIG.  188. 


321.   To  braze  with  hand  blowpipe,  a  steel  rocker  arm,  Fig. 

188. 


BRAZING. 


149 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


1.  Place  work  A  to  be  brazed 
on  hearth  C  within  forge  D;  sur- 
round by  fire  brick  E  to  retain  and 
deflect  heat  on  to  work. 

2.  Use    borax    flux  F  freely; 
heat    slowly    with    blowpipe     B 
to    a  low  red.     Apply  spelter  G 
when  flux  flows.    Control  gas  and 


air  through   pipes   H  and  J  by 
hand. 

3.  Steadily  raise  temperature  of 
work,  continuously  apply  flux  and 
spelter  with  rod  K  until  spelter 
fuses  thoroughly  through  joint. 

4.  Allow  work  to  cool  slowly 
in  air. 


Attention.  —  All  parts  to  be  brazed  must  be  closely  fitted.  In 
some  cases  it  is  best  to  bind  parts  together  with, iron  wire.  Steel  or 
iron  while  being  brazed  may  "  scale  "  and  be  destroyed  if  heated 
too  much;  copper  or  brass  may  melt. 

322.  To  braze  with  stationary  blowpipe,  half  a  rear  steel 
axle  case  for  an  automobile,  A,  Fig.  189,  with  blowpipe 
B  supplied  through  pipes  C  and  D.  Clean  and  pin  parts 


FIRE 
BRICK 

F 


STATIONARY 
BLOW 
PIPE 


AUTOMOBILE 
AXLE 

A       SPELTER 

WIRE 

H 


FIG.  189.  —  BRAZING  WITH  STATIONARY  BLOWPIPE. 

together,  place  on  forge  E,  surround  by  bricks   F,  turn  no 
blast  and  heat  to  a  low  red.     Apply  flux  with  rod  G  and 


150 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


supply  spelter  from  wire  H.     Heat  until  spelter  fuses  through 
joint,  shut  off  blast,  and  cool  slowly  in  air. 

323.  To  solder  small  work,  as  jewelry,  use  a  blowpipe  held 
in  the  mouth  to  direct  flame  on  to  work  from  a  gas  jet,  Bunsen 
burner,  or  alcohol  lamp. 

324.  To  braze  cast  iron,  use,  in  conjunction  with  the  regular 
brazing  material,  a  special  compound  which  will  decarbonize 
the  fractured  surface  of  cast  iron. 

325.    To  braze  broken  cast  iron  vise  jaw  with  decarbon- 
izing compound  A,  Fig.  190. 


PORTABLE 

BLOW 

PIPE 

P 


FIG.  190.  —  BRAZING  CAST  IRON. 


SCHEDULE  OF  OPERATIONS. 


1.  Place  jaw  B  with  fracture  B' 
on  brazing  forge  C  and  heat  to 
bum  out  all  foreign  matter. 

2.  When  cool,  remove  and  clean 
fracture  with  hydrochloric  acid  D, 
wash  with  water  E,  and  wipe  dry 
with  clean  cloth  F. 

3.  Brush    fracture    vigorously 
with  wire  brush  G,  and  coat  with 
compound  A  made  into  paste  by 
adding  mixing  liquid  H. 

4.  Bolt  the  parts  together  with 


bolt  J,  and  place  on  fire  brick 
and  level  with  fire  clay  L.  Place 
brick  around  and  iron  plate  M 
on  top  of  piece  to  deflect  the  heat. 
Place  portable  blowpipes  N  and 
P  in  position. 

5.  Heat  jaw  to  cherry  red,  with 
spoon  Q  apply  borax  R  and  spelter 
S  to  fracture  until  joint  is  satu- 
rated with  spelter,  then  allow  the 
whole  mass  to  cool  slowly  in  air. 


BABBITTING. 


151 


Attention.  —  If  brazing  is  carefully  performed,  the  joint  will  be 
as  strong  as  the  casting  was  before  it  was  broken.  When  brazing 
a  small  part  to  a  large  part,  heat  and  cool  parts  evenly  to  avoid 
cracks  due  to  unequal  expansion  and  contraction.  Small  pieces 
may  be  held  in  alinement  for  brazing  by  bsdding  with  fire  clay. 
Protect  threaded  parts  from  heat  and  spelter  with  a  coating  of  fire 
clay  or  graphite.  Coat  finished  work  with  Spanish  white. 

326.  Pickle  brazed  work  to  remove  surplus  flux  and  allow 
joint  to  be  more  readily  finished  by  filing.  Pickle  solution 
consists  of  one  part  sulphuric  acid  to  thirty  parts  water. 


BABBITTING. 

327.  Babbitt  bearings  are  often  used  because  they  can  be 
made  in  place  and  can  be  easily  renewed.     Eccentric  straps, 
hangers,  and  main  engine  bearings  etc.,  are  often  babbitted. 
The  boxes  or  bearings  are  cast  in  halves,  the  lower  half  being 
babbitted    first. 

The  retaining  webs 
at  -the  ends  are 
bored  or  chipped 
and  filed  slightly 
larger  than  shaft 
to  aline  shaft. 
On  fine  work,  as 
bearings  of  lathe 
headstocks,  an 
undersized  shaft  is 
used,  the  Babbitt 
being  peened  or 
stretched  by  bur- 
nishing and  the 
hole  later  bored,  or 

bored  and  reamed.  FlQ.  191>     BABBITTING  ENGINE  BEARINGS. 

328.  To  Babbitt 

cap  of  crank-shaft  bearing,  Fig.    191,   the  bottom   half   of 
bearing  having  been  completed. 


152 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


SCHEDULE   OF  OPERATIONS. 


Heat  cap  A  of  bearing  on  engine 
bed  B  to  drive  out  any  moisture, 
which  would  cause  metal  to  ex- 
plode. 

Place  strips  of  cardboard  C,  C' 
between  halves  of  box  to  prevent 
Babbitt  from  uniting  with  lower 


half  box,  and  strips  of  leather  or 
clay,  as  at  D,  to  prevent  Babbitt 
running  out.  Heat  Babbitt  in  pot 
E  to  700°  F.  (until  it  will  char  a 
pine  stick),  skim,  and  pour  with 
ladle  F,  into  funnel  G  which  is 
formed  by  putty  to  guide  the  metal. 


Attention.  —  Powdered  resin  sprinkled  into  the  Babbitt  or  box 
will  facilitate  the  flow. 

Note.  —  In  babbitting  large  shafts,  paper  may  be  wrapped 
around  the  shaft,  or  a  shaft  slightly  larger  than  the  regular 
one  may  be  used  to  allow  for  shrinkage.  Chalk,  smoke,  or 
soap  shaft  to  prevent  Babbitt  from  sticking. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

POWER  TRANSMISSION.       ALINING  AND  LEVELING  SHAFTING 
AND  INSTALLING  MACHINES. 

POWER  TRANSMISSION. 

329.  Power  for  driving    machine  tools  is   obtained  from 
engines,  motors,  etc.,  and  transmitted  to  a  main  shaft  and 
then  to  line  shafts   by  belts,   pulleys,   oj   gears.     Machines 
are  seldom   driven   directly  from  line  shaft    but  indirectly 
through   countershafts  of  the  friction  type  used  on  engine 
lathes  and  milling  machines,  and  the  tight  and  loose  pulley 
type  used  on  hand  lathes,  drilling  machines,  and  planers. 

In  electrically  driven  machines  where  individual  motors  are 
employed,  no  countershaft  is  necessary,  and  by  using  a  rheo- 
stat various  speeds  are  obtained. 

330.  Shafting  of  steel  or  wrought  iron  is  obtainable  either 
turned  or  rolled.     Turned  shafts  are  Ty  less  than  nominal 
diameter,  a  2"  shaft  being  lyf"  actual  diameter.     Cold-rolled 
shafts  are  obtainable  of  nominal  or  reduced  size.     Line  shafts 
at  least  2"  nominal  diameter,  running  from  150  to  200  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  supported  by  hangers  bolted  to  timbers 
about   10  feet  apart,  form  a  good  arrangement  to  transmit 
power  to  machine  tools  (see  Figs.  203  and  204).       Couplings 
are  used  to  connect  two  or  more  lengths  of  shafting.     Two 
collars,  on  each  end  of  a  line  shaft  bearing,  take  the  thrust 
and  prevent  end  motion. 

331.  Pulleys,  solid  and  split,  are  obtainable  in  cast  iron, 
pressed   steel,    and   wood.     The   bores    are   usually  TV  less 
than  nominal  diameter,  but  may  be  obtained  nominal  diameter. 
Solid  pulleys  are  used  in  places  where  they  are  not  likely  to 
be  changed.     It  is  best  to  use  split  pulleys  on  line  shafts. 
To  prevent  slipping  of  belt,  avoid  belting  together  pulleys 
of  greatly  different  diameters.     Pulleys  up  to  36"  diameter 

153 


154  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

are  usually  fastened  to  shaft  by  set  screws  or  clamping;  and 
over  36"  by  keys.  Pulleys  running  at  high  speed  are 
balanced.  See  §  361. 

332.  Crown  and  straight  face  pulleys.  —  Pulleys  are  tapered, 
leaving  center  highest  to  keep  belts  in  place,  as  a  belt  tends 
to  run  to  the  highest  part  of  pulley.     Crowned  tight  and 
loose  pulleys  on  countershafts  are  belted  to  a  straight-face 
pulley  on  line  shaft. 

333.  General  formulas  for  calculating  speeds  of  shafts  and 
diameters  of  pulleys.  —  Diameter  of  driven  X  revolutions  per 
minute  =  diameter  of  driver  X  revolutions  per  minute. 

To  find  diameter  of  pulley  on  line  shaft  to  give  desired 
speed  of  countershaft. 
Formula.  — 

Diam.  of  countershaft  pulley 
Desired  speed  of  countershaft  X  - 

Speed  of  line  shaft 

=  Diameter  of  line  shaft  pulley. 

Example.  —  Desired  speed  of  countershaft  for  12"  engine 
lathe,  180  R. P.M.  Diameter  of  countershaft  pulley,  8";  speed 
of  line  shaft,  150  R.P.M. 

Solution.  —  180  X  8  ^  150  =  9.6".     Use  10"  pulley. 

To  find  diameter  of  pulley  for  a  countershaft  to  give  de- 
sired speed  of  a  machine  spindle. 
Formula.  — 

Diam.  of  spindle  pulley 
Desired  speed  of  spindle  X  - 

Speed  of  countershaft 

=  Diameter  of  countershaft  pulley. 

Example.  —  Desired  speed  of  grinder  spindle,  1800  r.p.m. 
Diameter  of  pulley  on  grinder  spindle,  6".  Speed  of  counter- 
shaft, 500. 

Solution.— =  21.6". 

Use  22"  pulley. 

To  find  speed  of  countershaft  to  give  desired  speed  of  con- 
stant speed  drive. 


BELTS.  155 

Formula.  — 

Desired  speed  of  constant  speed  drive  X  Diam.  of  drive  pulley 

Diameter  of  countershaft  pulley 

=  Speed  of  countershaft. 

Example.  —  Desired  speed  of  constant  speed  drive,  of  an 
all-geared  headstock  machine,  600  R.P.M. 

Diameter  of  drive  pulley,  14";  diameter  of  pulley  on  counter- 
shaft, 19". 

600  X  14" 
Solution.—     — :   =  442,  speed  of  countershaft. 

To  find  the  velocity  of  last  pulley  in  any  system  of  shafts 
or  pulleys. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  together  all  diameters  of  drivers  and 
multiply  the  product  by  speed  of  first  one;  divide  this  product 
by  product  of  diameters  of  all  driven  pulleys  and  the  result 
will  be  the  speed  of  the  last  one. 

334.  Effect  of  belts  and  gears  on  speeds.  —  The  relative 
speed  in  a  train  of  gears  is  always  exact,  but  relative  speed  of 
pulleys  is  subject  to   variation,  for  a  belt    creeps    or  slips 
about  1%  and  does  not  drive  driven  pulley  quite  as  fast  as 
the  calculation  shows. 

335.  Belting  of  leather,  rubber,  or  a  woven  fabric  (cotton 
duck)  is  employed  to  transmit  rotary  motion  and  power  from 
driving  pulley  to  driven  pulley. 

336.  Rope  and  round  leather  belts  and  chains.  —  Wire  and 
hemp  rope  drivers  are  used;  also  round  leather  belts  and  chains. 
When  rope  is  used,  the  pulleys  are  called  sheaves  or  groove 
pulleys,  and  are  provided  with  V-shaped  grooves  to  increase 
the  grip.     Sprocket  wheels  are  used  in  chain  transmission. 

Belts  of  woven  fabrics  (canvas  belts)  are  used  for  large 
and  small  powers  and  on  high  speed  machines. 

337.  Rubber  belts  are  used  where  great  changes  of  moisture 
prevail,  but  not  where  there  is  much  oil  or  dust. 

338.  Leather    belts    are  designated  as  single  and   double 
according  to  the  number  of  thicknesses  of  leather.     Use  single 


156  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE   WORK. 

belts  on  small  pulleys  and  light  work.    The  grain  side  of  belt 
(hair  side)  should  always  run  next  to  pulley. 

339.  Open  belts.  —  Fig.  192  shows  an  open  belt  from  line 
shaft  to  countershaft,  to  rotate  driven  pulley  in  same  direction, 
as  the  driving  belt  of  an  engine  lathe. 


DRIVING  PULLEY  DRIVEN  PULLEY 
9'0" 


FIG.  192.  —  OPEN  BELT. 

340.  To  obtain  length  of  open  belts.  —  Pass  a  tape,  pref- 
erably of  steel,  around  pulleys,  and  if  a  single  belt  is  to  be  used, 
cut  belt  to  length  obtained  by  tape;  but  if  a  double  belt, 
add  twice  thickness  of  belt.  Length  of  small  belts  may  be 
easily  obtained  by  passing  belt  around  pulleys  and  straining 
with  hand  pull.  New  belts  stretch  and  become  slack  after  a 
few  days'  use  and  should  be  taken  up.  This  slackness  may 
be  anticipated  on  large  belts  by  cutting  belt  I"  shorter  for 
every  10  feet  to  allow  for  stretch.  Do  not  run  belts  too  tightly. 

To  obtain  length  of  belt  by  formula. 

Rule.  —  Add  diameter  of  pulleys  in  inches.  Multiply  sum 
by  constant  1.57,  and  add  to  product  twice  distance  between 
centers  in  inches. 

If  there  is  much  difference  in  diameter  of  pulleys  the  follow- 
ing formula  should  be  used  for  open  belts. 

Formula  for  finding  length  of  open  belt: 
L  =  3.1472  +  r+  2D  +  ^R  ~ 


D 


R  =  radius  of  large  pulley. 

r  =  radius  of  small  pulley. 

D  =  distance  between  centers  of  shafts. 

L  =  length  of  belt. 


BELTS.  157 

Example.  —  In  Fig.  192  one  pulley  is  24",  other  pulley  12" 
in  diameter;  distance  between  centers  of  the  shafts  is  9  feet. 
What  is  the  length  of  belt? 

Solution.  —  Putting  radii  of  pulleys  in  feet,  and  substituting 
in  formula: 

.25 
L  =  3.14  (1  +  .5)  +  18  +  — 

=  4.71  +  18  +  .027 
=  22.74  feet  or  22'  8J". 

341.  Cross  belts.  —  Fig.  193  shows  a  cross  belt  drive  to 
rotate  driven  pulley  in  opposite  direction,  as  the  backing  belt 
of  an  engine  lathe. 

DRIVING     PULLEY  DRIVEN    "ULLEY 


FIG.  193.  —  CROSS  BELTS. 

342.  To  obtain  length  of  cross  belts.  —  If  pulleys  are  already 
in  position,  use  a  tape  for  finding  length  of  a  cross  belt;  but 
if  pulleys  are  not  in  position,  length  of  cross  belt  may  be 
obtained  by  following  formula. 

Formula  for  finding  length  of  cross  belt,  as  in  Fig.  193. 
L  =  3.14  (R  +  r)  +  2  D  + 


R  =  radius  of  large  pulley. 
r  =  radius  of  small  pulley. 
D  =  distance  between  centers  of  shafts. 
L  =  length  of  belt. 

Example.  —  In  Fig.  193  one  pulley  is  24",  other  pulley  12" 
in  diameter;  distance  between  centers  of  two  shafts  is  9  feet. 
What  is  length  of  belt? 


158 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


Solution. 
in  formula: 


Putting  radii  of  pulleys  in  feet  and  substituting 

2.25 


L  =  3.14  (1  +  .5)  +  18  +. 

=  4.71  +  18  +  .25 
=  22.96  or  22'  1H". 


9 


These  formulas  for  open  and  cross  belts  can  be  depended 
upon  to  give  length  of  single  belts,  for  the  error  is  less  than 
stretch  of  belt.  For  double  belts  it  is  necessary  to  add  thick- 
ness of  belt  to  diameter  of  pulleys. 

343.  Quarter-turn  and  twisted  belts  are  used  to  transmit 
power  between  two  shafts  lying  in  parallel  planes  but  whose 
axes  are  at  an  angle.     Fig.  194  shows  plan,  elevation,  and  end 
view.     Shafts  A  and  B  are  located  at  right  angles,  and  figures 
show  that  pulleys  C  and  D  should  be  lined  up  to  have  belt  run 
in  direction  of  arrows. 

344.  To  aline  pulleys  for  quarter-turn  belt. 


ELEVATION 

FIG.  194.  —  QUARTER-TURN  BELT. 
SCHEDULE   OF   OPERATIONS. 


1.  Place  pulleys  C  and  D  on 
respective  shafts  in  approximate 
positions. 

2.  Slide  pulley  D  upon  shaft  B 
until  its  middle  plane,  EF,  is  in 
line  with  point  E  of  delivery  side 
of  pulley  C. 


3.  Slide  pulley  C'  on  shaft  A 
until  middle  plane  is  in  line  with 
point  G  of  delivery  side  of  pulley 
D',  when  pulleys  will  appear  as 
shown  in  full  lines  in  end  view. 


Attention. — The  belt  will  run  off  pulleys  if  direction  is  reversed. 
To  revolve  pulleys  in  opposite  direction,  they  must  be  lined  up  in 
reverse  order. 


LACING  BELTS.  159 

345.  To  aline  pulleys  whose  axes  are  other  than  a  right  angle. 

—  It  may  be  seen  that  the  small  pulley  can  be  rotated,  as 
shown  dotted  in  end  view,  about  axis  EF  projected  at  H,  to 
.any  intermediate  angle  between  an  open  belt  (0°)  and  a  cross 
belt  (180°),  and  still  have  all  the  conditions  of  proper  aline- 
ment  fulfilled. 

Adjust  pulleys  to  make  belt  run  properly,  especially  for  cross 
and  quarter-turn  belts. 

346.  Guide  pulleys.  —  When  two  shafts  do  not  lie  in  parallel 
planes,  supplementary  guide  pulleys  are  used  to  guide  belt. 
They  are  also  used  as  tighteners  for  open  belts. 

347.  Joining  ends  of  belts.  —  The  ends  of  belts  are  joined 
in  two  ways:  by  bringing  butt  ends  together  and  fastening 
with  lacing  or  hooks,  and  by  cementing,  gluing,  or  riveting  the 
scarfed  ends  together. 

348.  Belt  lacing.  —  Rawhide  lacing  comes  in  widths  I"  to 
£",  and  in  various  lengths  and  thicknesses.     For  belts  2"  and 
less,  use  \"  lace;  2"  to  4",  Ty';  4"  to  16",  f";  above  16",  \" . 

349.  Lacing  belts  and  belt  punches.  —  Cut  belt  off  square 
with    a    try   square    and    knife.       Punch    holes    with    belt 


FIG.  195.  —  PUNCHING  BELT  TO  LACE. 

punch  A,  Fig.  195,  in  belt  opposite  each  other.  Four  sizes 
of  cutters,  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  are  provided  for  different  widths 
of  belts. 

350.   To  lace  small  and  medium  belts.     Fig.  196. — Punch 
single  row  of  holes  in  each  end:  two  holes  for  belts  less  than 


160 


ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


2";  3  holes  from  2"  to  3";  4  holes  from  3"  to  4i";  5  holes  from 
4J"  to  6". 

-   3" H       H —    3 

BELT  BELT 


PULLEY   SIDE 

OR 
GRAIN 


FIG.  196.  —  LACING  SMALL  BELT. 


SCHEDULE   OF   OPERATIONS. 


In  3"  belt  in  Fig.  196,  punch  3 
holes  and  use  f  "  rawhide  lacing. 

Pass  ends  of  lacing  down  through 
holes  A  and  B,  with  grain  side  of 
lacing  outward  leaving  ends  of 
equal  length. 

Pass  end  of  lacing  that  was 
passed  down  through  A  up 
through  B,  but  do  not  pull  tight ; 
and  end  of  lacing  that  passed  down 
through  B  up  through  A.  Draw 
both  tight.  The  lacing  will  ap- 
pear on  pulley  side  as  at  A'  and  Bf. 

Pass  lacing  that  is  up  through 
A  down  through  D,  and  the  lacing 
that  is  up  through  B  down 
through  C. 

Pass  lacing  that  is  down 
through  C  up  through  D,  and 
lacing  that  is  down  through  D 
up  through  C.  Draw  tight. 


Next  pass  the  lacing  that  is 
up  through  C  down  through  F, 
and  lacing  that  is  up  through  D 
down  through  E. 

Pass  lacing  that  is  down 
through  E  up  through  F,  and 
lacing  that  is  down  through  F  up 
through  E.  Draw  tight. 

To  fasten  ends,  punch  small 
holes  with  a  belt  awl  at  G  and  H. 

Pass  lacing  that  is  up  through 
E  down  through  D  and  up 
through  G. 

Pass  lacing  that  is  up  through  F 
down  through  E  and  up  through 
H.  Draw  ends  of  lacing  up 
through  holes  G  and  H,  hard. 
Make  incision  with  knife  on  one 
side  of  lacing  close  to  belt  to 
form  a  barb;  then  cut  off  lacing 
about  f"  above  incision. 


LACING  BELTS. 


161 


351.   To  lace  large  belts.   Fig.  197.— For  belts  from  3"  to  5" 
punch  3  and  2  holes;  for  belts  5"  to  1"  punch  4  and  3  holes. 


BELT. 
PULLEY    SIDE 

OR 
GRAIN 


FIG.  197.  —  LACING  LARGE  BELT. 

For  wider  belts  punch  one  or  two  more  than  number  of  inches 
in  width. 

SCHEDULE   OF   OPERATIONS. 


In  6"  belt  in  Fig.  197  punch 
holes  for  f  "  lacing. 

Pass  ends  of  rawhide  lacing 
from  under  or  grain  side  of  belt 
up  through  A  and  H,  middle  holes 
in  second  row;  draw  ends  of  belt 
together  firmly,  and  make  ends  of 
lacing  of  equal  length. 

With  end  of  lacing  that  is  up 
through  A  lace  to  left  through 

B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  F,  G,  D,  E,  B, 

C,  and  H',  then  punch  small  hole 
at  K  with  awl,  and  draw  lacing 


through  hole  and  hitch  it.  It  is 
often  desirable,  on  very  heavy 
belts,  to  give  lacing  a  firmer 
hitch  by  punching  two  or  more 
small  holes,  passing  the  lacing 
through  them  and  barbing  it  at 
last  hole. 

Lace  the  right  side  in  same 
manner  as  left. 

Note.  —  When  lacing  a  wide 
belt  by  this  method,  it  is  better 
to  lace  alternately,  right  and 
left. 


352.  Belt  clamps.  —  The  method  of  lacing  wide,  heavy 
belts  is  to  place  the  belt  on  the  pulleys  and  use  a  belt  clamp 
to  draw  ends  of  belt  together. 


162 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


353.  Coil  wire  lacing.     Fig.  198.  —  Small  perforations  are 
made  in  ends  of  belt  at  A  and  B  (right  and  left  spiral)  by  a  heli- 

cal needle,  in  a  special  machine  op- 
erated with  crank  by  hand.  The 
coil  wire  lacing  is  inserted  in  same 
c  manner  as  the  needle,  flattened  and 
pressed  well  into  belt.  The  ends  are 
coupled  together  by  a  rawhide  pin, 
or  steel  pin,  shown  at  C. 

Composition  wire  belt  lacing  is 
used  in  a  similar  manner  to  raw-hide: 
apart.  Begin  at  two  center  holes  and 
lace  both  ways  with  straight  strands  on  pulley  side  and  at 
each  turn  tighten  wire  with  pliers.  Fasten  ends  by  back 
lacing  and  taking  single  turn  on  wire  with  pliers,  and  cut  off. 
Flatten  lacing  with  hammer. 

354.  Belt  hooks  and  metal  fastenings.   Fig.    199.  —  These 
hooks  can  be  put  in  in  less  time  than  lacing.     The  holes  are 
punched  with  a  special  belt  punch.     A  shows  hooks  with 
pulley  side  of  belt  up,  and  B  the  outside  of  belt,  showing  fm- 


FIG.  198.— COIL  WIRE  LACING. 


Punch  holes  from 


f  "  to 


FIG.  199. — DOUBLE  HITCH  BELT  HOOKS.      FIG.  200. — STEEL  BELT  LACING. 

ished  joint.  Steel  belt  lacing  in  Fig.  200  is  useful  for  small 
belts.  The  lacing,  ready  to  be  applied,  is  shown  at  A,  and  at 
B  the  finished  joint,  as  it  runs  with  clinched  points  of  lacing 
against  pulley. 

355.  Cementing  or  gluing  belts.  —  Belts  up  to  3"  in  width 
are  usually  lapped  4",  and  wider  belts  about  width  of  belt. 
The  ends  of  belt  may  be  beveled  off  to  form  lap  (so  that  the 
thickness  of  lap  will  be  same  as  rest  of  belt)  with  a  wood- 
worker's smoothing  plane.  Belt  cement  is  obtainable,  but 
for  small  belts  glue  will  make  a  good  joint.  After  cement  or 


SPEED   INDICATOR. 


163 


glue  is  applied,  the  joint  should  be  clamped  very  tightly 
between  two  pieces  of  smooth  board  and  allowed  to  dry. 
High-speed  belts  should  always  be  made  endless. 

356.  Belt  dressing.  —  When  a  leather  belt  becomes  dry,  an 
application  of  castor  or  neat's-foot  oil  will  make  it  pliable  and 
increase  its  adhesion  to  the  pulley.     Belt  dressings  are  obtain- 
able.    Oiling  or  applying  a  belt  dressing  to  a  belt  when  it  needs 
it  will  prolong  the  life  of  the  belt;  but  too  much  dressing  is 
injurious  to  leather.     Resin  or  soap  is  injurious. 

357.  Speed  indicator,  Fig.   201.  —  Revolutions  of   shafts, 
spindles,  etc.,  are  quickly  counted  by  a  speed'indicator,  used  in 
conjunction  with  a  watch.    Spindle  A  passes  through  case  B 
containing  twro  dials  C,  D.    Handle  E  is  of  hard  rubber.     Dial 
C  is  graduated  into  100  divisions;  each  division  when  passing 
indicating  finger  F  represents  one  revolution  of  spindle.     Dial 


FIG.  201.  —  SPEED  INDICATOR. 


is  figured  to  read  right  or  left.  Dial  D  has  fifty  divisions,  each 
representing  100  revolutions  of  spindle  A  or  one  complete  revo- 
lution of  dial  C.  This  indicator  will  count  5000  revolutions. 

Some  speed  indicators  are  so  arranged  that  they  may 
be  started  or  stopped  without  removing  the  eyes  from  the 
watch.  An  attachment  is  obtainable  also  for  measuring 
surface  speeds. 

Indicators  with  long  points  are  obtainable  for  use  where 
ends  of  shafts  are  not  easy  to  reach. 


164 


ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 


SCHEDULE    OF    OPERATIONS. 
For  Using  Speed  Indicator,  Fig.  201. 


To  set  indicator.  —  Press  and 
turn  screw  G,  then  turn  dial  C 
until  trip  pin  H  is  close  to  finger 
F  to  the  right  or  left,  so  that  pin 
H  will  not  pass  under  finger  un- 
til dial  has  made  one  complete 
revolution ;  then  tighten  screw  G. 
Next  turn  dial  D  until  finger  F 
engages  depression  indicated  by 
pin  K. 

To  use,  hold  watch  in  left  hand 
and  with  right  press  indicator 
point  into  center  of  revolving 
shaft  or  spindle,  as  at  L. 


Example.  —  When  point  of 
spindle  A  is  held  against  shaft  L 
sixty  seconds,  withdraw,  and  if 
dial  D  is  distant  10  spaces  and 
dial  C  40  spaces,  the  spindle  is 
revolving  at  1040  R.P.M. 

Solution.  —  10  X  100  +  40  = 
1040. 

Attention. — Two  rubber  tips 
are  provided  to  go  over  end  of 
spindle  A  and  used  as  at  M,  N 
and  P,  Q.  A  surface  speed  at- 
tachment is  also  obtainable. 


358.  Pair  of  gears  and  train  of  gears.  —  Two  gears   that 
run   together   are   commonly  called  a  pair  of  gears,   one  the 
driver  and  the  other  the  driven  or  follower;  and  one  revolves 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  other.     When  three  or  more 
gears  run  together,  they  are  commonly  called  a  train  of  gears. 
When  a  train  of  three  gears  run  together,  as  the  simple  screw- 
cutting  gears  of  an  engine  lathe,  the  middle  gear  is  called  the 
intermediate  or  idler,  which  meshes  with  driver  and  driven 
gears  and  compels   both   to  revolve  in  the   same   direction. 
The  intermediate  gear  does  not   change   relative   speeds   of 
driver  and  driven  gears. 

359.  To  calculate  speed  of  gears.  —  Ride.  —  When  calcu- 
lating speed  of   gearing,   use  same  rules  as  for  belting,  but 
take    numbers    of   teeth    in    gears   instead   of    diameters    of 
pulleys,  see  §  333. 

Example.  —  How  many  revolutions  does  a  32-tooth  driven  or 
follower  gear  make  to  5  revolutions  of  a  96-tooth  driver? 

Solution.  —  96  X  5  -?-  32  =  15  revolutions  of  driven  gear. 


BALANCING  PULLEYS.  165 

Example.  —  The  back  gears  of  an  engine  lathe  consist  of 
two  pairs  of  gears.  On  some  14"  lathes,  one  gear  and  pinion 
contain  81  teeth  and  27  teeth  respectively,  and  the  other 
gear  and  pinion  76  teeth  and  19  teeth.  How  many  revo- 
lutions will  cone  pulley  make  while  spindle  makes  one 
revolution? 

C1    y    *7« 

Solution. =  12  revolutions  of  cone  pulley. 

z  t  y\  i  y 

360.  Pulleys,  fly  wheels,  car  wheels  should  be  in  balance 
to  avoid  vibration.     Small  pulleys   are  balanced  only  when 
they  are  to  run  at  very  high  speeds. 

Line  shaft  pulleys,  cones,  armatures,  and  polishing  wheels 
are  often  given  a  standing  balance  upon  two  pairs  of  balanc- 
ing disks,  or  on  balancing  ways,  as  in  Fig.  202. 

361.  Balancing  pulleys  —  Standing  balance.     Fig.  202.  — 
Level  two  finished  balancing  ways  A,  A'  upon  their  supports, 


FIG.  202.  —  BALANCING  PULLEY. 

and  insert  close-fitting  shaft  or  mandrel  B  in  finished  pulley 
with  its  set  screw  in  place,  and  mount  on  ways. 

Start  pulley,  to  rotate  slowly;  the  heavy  side  will  stop  at 
the  bottom.  Weight  the  rim  diametrically  opposite  with  clay 
or  putty  as  at  C  to  offset  the  unbalanced  weight.  Repeat 
until  pulley  will  stop  at  any  position.  Remove  lumps  of 
clay.  Drill  holes  through  rim  T\"  and  countersink  and  rivet 


166  ELEMENTS   OF  MACHINE  WORK. 

pieces  of  metal  as  at  D,  D'.  Weight  of  metal  and  rivets 
should  equal  weight  of  clay.  Then  file  flush.  Sometimes  the 
hub  and  inner  side  of  rim  of  pulleys  are  turned  to  balance 
them. 

Attention. — Pulleys,  fly  wheels,  etc.,  are  often  balanced 
by  cutting  away  metal  from  the  heavy  side  by  drilling, 
chipping  or  filing  instead  of  adding  metal  to  the  light  side. 

Balancing  fly  wheels  — Rotary  balance.  —  Gas  engine  fly 
wheels,  electric  motor  and  dynamo  armatures,  drums  and 
pulleys  running  at  high  speeds  are  rotary  balanced  in  a 
special  machine. 

To  rotary  balance  a  fly  wheel,  it  is  poised  horizontally  on 
the  point  of  the  perpendicular  center  and  a  weight  of  the 
necessary  size  is  located  at  the  middle  of  the  inside  of  the 
rim  to  obtain  a  standing  balance.  The  machine  is  then  run 
at  the  desired  speed  and  fly  wheel  tested  with  chalk  or  a 
clay  pencil.  If  wheel  runs  out,  move  weight  toward  edge  of 
rim.  If  on  reaching  edge  of  rim  the  fly  wheel  still  runs  out, 
increase  size  of  weight  and  place  small  counter  weight 
diametrically  and  transversely  opposite.  If  the  weight  is 
not  heavy  enough,  increase  its  size,  but  if  this  affects  the 
standing  balance,  also  increase  size  of  counter  weight  opposite. 

Attention.  — Automobile  and  power-boat  crank  shafts  are 
rotary  balanced  in  special  machines. 

ALINING  AND  LEVELING  SHAFTING  AND  INSTALLING 
MACHINES. 

362.  Erection  of  hangers  for  main -line  shaft.  — In  wooden 
construction  the  hangers  to  support  the  main-line  shafting 
are  bolted  to  wooden  beams,  posts,  or  walls. 

In  concrete  construction  anchor  bolts  are  molded  into  the 
beams  so  that  the  line-shaft  hangers  will  be  ten  feet  apart. 

The  anchor  bolts  support  bracket  castings  to  which  are  bolted 
two  angle  irons  which  run  with  girders.  The  hangers  are  bolted 
to  the  angle  irons  and  support  the  shafting  which  runs  along  the 
building.  See  Figs.  203  and  204. 


ALINING   SHAFTING. 


167 


363.  To  aline  and  level  shafting,  line  and  level 
method.  The  fly  wheel  of  the  engine  may  be  belted  to  a  sup- 
plementary shaft  called  a  jack  shaft,  or  direct  to  the  main  line. 

The  countershaft  may  be  driven  direct  from  the  main  line 
or  through  another  line  of  shafting,  and  all  are  alined  from  the 
engine  shaft. 


FIG.  203.  —  ALINING  AND    LEVELING    SHAFTING,  LINE  AND  LEVEL   METHOD. 


SCHEDULE   OF   OPERATIONS. 


To  Place  Hangers. 

Stretch  fine  grass  or  silk  line 
1,  2,  Fig.  203,  in  direction  of 
desired  shaft  or  use  wall  as  guide. 
Mark  location  and  place  hangers 
A,  B  approximately. 

Place  shaft  in  boxes,  and  lift 
into  hangers. 

To  Aline  Shaft  Vertically. 

Use  stick  3,  3'  with  nail  in  end 
and  move  shaft  until  parallel  with 
line  1,  2,  adjusting  hangers  by 
screws  4,  5  or  with  heavy  hammer 
at  6,  7. 


To  Aline  Shaft  Horizontally. 

Hang  leveling  hooks  8,  9  from 
shaft  with  straight  edge  10  on 
hooks.  Place  spirit  level  11  on 
straight  edge  and  test,  making 
adjustment  at  12,  13. 

Move  leveling  device  along  shaft, 
placing  hook  8  where  9  is,  test 
and  adjust  again,  and  so  on  along 
shaft. 

Attention.  —  Instead  of  leveling 
device,  spirit  level  is  sometimes 
placed  directly  on  shaft  to 
test. 


168 


ELEMENTS  OF   MACHINE  WORK. 

SHAFT 


364.  Alining  and  leveling  shafting,  transit  method.  — The 
shaft  is  set  in  approximate  alinement  by  stretching  a  line  at 
desired  location  or  by  measuring  from  the  wall.  The  hangers 
are  fastened  to  posts,  timbers,  walls  or  ceiling  and  the  shaft 
placed  in  boxes  and  accurately  alined  by  the  transit  method, 
Fig.  204. 

Targets  are  placed  on  shaft  and  wall.  A  special  architects' 
level  is  used  and  the  shafting  is  alined  and  leveled  in  one 
opeiation. 

The  device  is  used  also  for  setting  up  machinery  and 
grading  steam  and  water  pipe.  By  this  scheme  the  aline- 
ment of  shafting  is  tested  and  corrected  in  large  factories, 
mills,  etc.,  at  stated  periods  to  maintain  original  alinement. 

With  the  addition  of  a  special  lantern,  shafting  may  be 
alined  by  night. 


ALINING   SHAFTING. 


169 


SCHEDULE   OF   OPERATIONS. 
Transit  Method,  Fig.  204. 


At  end  of  shaft  1,  in  detail  1' 
and  near  hanger,  hang  portable 
target  2  by  clamps  3  with  plumb 
bob  4  attached.  Set  level  5  at 
zero  and  aline  center  of  target 
with  plumb  line.  Lower  plumb 
bob  and  mark  spot  on  floor,  move 
plumb  bob  about  one  foot  and 
mark  second  spot  and  connect 
with  straight  line.  Move  target 
away  and  center  transit  6  (tele- 
scope and  level)  over  line  on  floor 
by  blumb  bob  7.  Set  transit  level 
by  its  adjusting  screws  8.  Place 
cap  9  on  telescope  and  adjust 
target  up  or  down  until  horizontal 
line  coincides  with  pointer  on  cap. 
Move  target  to  other  end  of  shaft 
and  set  level  at  zero.  Remove 
cap,  sight  through  and  adjust 
telescope  to  coincide  with  vertical 
line  on  target.  Remove  portable 
target.  Place  fixed  target  10 
on  wall  at  end  of  line.  Sight 
through  telescope,  and  have  assist- 
ant adjust  fixed  target  in  both 
directions  until  cross  lines  on 
target  coincide  with  cross  hairs 
on  telescope.  The  fixed  target 
is  only  used  to  test  alinement  of 
telescope. 


Hang  portable  target  2'  near 
farthest  end  of  shaft.  Sight 
through  telescope, and  have  assist- 
ant adjust  shaft  horizontally  by 
adjusting  screws  11,  11',  and  ver- 
tically by  adjusting  screws  12 
12'  on  hanger  13,  or  by  heavy 
hammer  at  14,  14'  on  hangers 
without  side  adjusting  screws,  un- 
til cross  lines  on  target  coincide 
with  cross  hairs  on  telescope. 
Same  method  with  other  hangers. 

Attention. — Each  hanger  may  be 
tested  and  the  error  indicated  on  a 
chart,  then  the  corrections  made 
first  at  the  hanger  that  is  most 
out  of  line,  or  in  the  regular  order 
beginning  at  the  farthest  hanger. 
The  amount  to  adjust  hanger  may 
be  known  by  observing  on  cross 
hairs  of  telescope  the  number  of 
notches  on  sighting  spaces  in 
target  which  read  to  eighths  of 
inches  vertically  and  horizontally. 
For  night  use  lanterns  are  pro- 
vided. 

Note.  —  A  line  shaft  of  differ- 
ent diameters  may  be  alined  as 
easily  as  a  shaft  of  one  diameter, 
as  the  clamps  are  self-centering 
and  do  not  alter  height  of  target. 


365.  To  erect  a  countershaft  or  shaft  parallel  to  the  main 
line.  —  In  wood  construction,  hanger  planks  or  stringers  are 
bolted  to  the  beams  and  parallel  to  the  main  line  of  shafting. 
To  the  hanger  plank  or  stringer  the  countershaft  hangers  are 
bolted. 


170  ELEMENTS   OF   MACHINE  WORK. 

In  concrete  construction,  the  hanger  planks  or  stringers  are 
bolted  to  the  angle  irons,  and  countershaft  hangers  are  bolted 
to  them. 

Place  hangers  in  alinement  and  approximately  parallel  to 
main  line  by  measurement  or  by  stretching  a  line,  and  bolt 
to  hanger  plank  or  stringers  with  lag  screws  or  bolts.  Remove 
pulleys  from  countershaft  and  place  shaft  in  boxes,  test  shaft 
with  level  and  place  shims  of  wood  under  hangers  until  shaft 
is  level.  If  not  over  15  feet  distant,  clamp  two  short  sticks 
together  or  drive  nail  in  end  of  a  long  stick  to  permit  of  some 
adjustment  and  use  this  as  a  caliper  at  ends  to  test,  then  ad- 
just hangers  until  shaft  is  parallel  with  main  line. 

For  shafts  a  greater  distance  apart,  drop  a  plumb  line  from 
the  main  line  at  two  points  on  the  floor  some  distance  apart, 
and  connect  with  chalk  line;  then  draw  a  parallel  line  on  the 
floor  under  desired  position  of  countershaft  by  measurement. 
Obtain  the  position  of  each  hanger  and  countershaft,  dropping 
a  plumb  line  from  the  hanger  plank  to  this  floor  line. 

Attention.  —  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  remove  pulleys  from 
shaft,  place  another  shaft  in  boxes  and  test  its  alinement. 

366.  To  install  machine  tools.  — Place  the  machine  under 
or  as  nearly  under  the  countershaft  as  is  desired,  the  spindle 
or  driving  shaft  being  parallel  to  the  countershaft,  and  aline 
the  cone  or  pulley  on  the  machine  with  the  cone  or  pulley  on 
the  countershaft  by  dropping  a  plumb  line  direct  to  spindle 
shaft  or  ways  and  moving  the  machine  until  the  alinement  is 
correct. 

If  the  machine  is  not  directly  under  countershaft,  test  aline- 
ment by  measuring  from  spindle  to  plumb  line.  Fasten 
machine  to  wooden  floor  with  lag  screws,  and  to  concrete  floor 
with  expansion  bolts  in  holes  drilled  with  a  stone  drill  either 
flat  or  star-pointed. 

Attention.  —  Heavy  machines  such  as  milling  machines, 
planers,  etc.,  are  not  always  bolted  to  floor  but  leveled  on  the 
wooden  floor  or  leveled  and  bedded  with  cement  on  concrete 
floor. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
TABLES  AND   OTHER  DATA  USED   IN  MACHINE  WORK. 

367.  To  etch  names  and  figures  on  hardened  steel.  — In 

a  dark  room,  cover  surface  with  pulverized  asphaltum  dis- 
solved in  benzole. 

Draw  inscription  on  tracing  cloth,  clamp  the  design  to 
the  surface  and  cover  with  glass  or  celluloid.  Expose  one 
minute,  develop  in  turpentine  and  wash  in  water.  Flood 
inscription  with  chloride  of  iron,  strong  iodine,  or  a  mixture 
composed  of  2  ounces  pyroligneous  acid,  J  ounce  alcohol, 
and  J  ounce  nitric  acid.  Let  stand  about  ten  minutes. 
Wash  in  water. 

For  work  which  is  to  receive  an  elaborate  design,  such  as 
swords,  saws,  etc.,  the  inscription  is  printed  reversed  upon 
paper  with  an  ink  that  will  resist  acid,  then  transferred  to 
the  work  ;  the  paper  is  removed  and  the  inscription  flooded 
with  acid. 

A  rough  method  is  to  scratch  letters  or  figures  through  a  wax 
coating  and  with  a  feather  or  a  piece  of  wood  fill  depressions 
with  acid. 

368.  Bluing    revolvers  —  Iron    and    steel.  —  The    color  is 
obtained  by  heating  the  highly  polished  work   in  pulverized 
charcoal  and  rubbing  with  a  cloth  saturated  with  oil  or,  prefer- 
ably, vaseline.     Light  blues  are  obtained  by  heating  work  in 
sand  or  wood  ashes. 

369.  Gun    barrel    finish  —  blacking,    bluing,   browning.  - 

Gun  barrels,  revolvers,  etc.,  made  of  solid  steel  or  laminations 
of  iron  and  mild  steel  are  colored  by  acid  oxidizing  solutions. 
Different  formulas  are  used  to  produce  different  colors. 

For  a  brown  finish  use  the  following  :  1^  oz.  alcohol,  1J  oz. 

171 


172  ELEMENTS    OF    MACHINE    WORK. 

tincture  chloride  of  iron,  £  oz.  corrosive  sublimate,  1J  oz.  sweet 
spirits  of  niter,  1  oz.  blue  vitriol,  f  oz.  nitric  acid. 

Apply  the  solution  to  the  barrel  with  a  sponge  every  few 
hours,  and  twice  a  day  scratch  off  the  rust  with  file  card. 
Repeat  until  dark  enough. 

370.  Repairing  rust   holes   and  splits  in   pipe,   and  plug- 
ging blowpipes.  — To  temporarily  repair  a  leak  in  a  steam  or 
water  pipe,  place  a  piece  of  sheet  rubber  packing  over  hole  or 
split  and  use  a  special  emergency  pipe  clamp. 

Blow  holes  in  fittings  or  castings  may  be  drilled,  tapped, 
plugged,  and  the  plug  filed  off  flush.  Small  blow  holes  are 
filled  with  a  rust  joint  or  special  cement. 

371.  To   case-harden    cast   iron.  —  Heat    the    piece    to    a 
cherry  red,  coat  with  cyanide  of  potassium,  reheat  to  a  cherry 
red  and   plunge   into  cold   water.     See  §  239.     Iron  castings 
may  be  case-hardened  also  by  the  box  process.     See  §  240. 


INCHES    WITH    EQUIVALENTS    IN    MILLIMETERS.      17B 


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174 


ELEMENTS    OF   MACHINE   WORK. 


373.  TABLE  OF  MILLIMETERS  WITH  EQUIVALENTS  IN  INCHES. 

From  YQ   to  100  m/m  Advancing  by  -j1^  Millimeter. 


M  /M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES 

M  /M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

.1 

.00394 

5.1 

.20078 

10.1 

.39763 

15.1 

.59448 

20.1 

.79133 

.2 

.00787 

5.2 

.20472 

10.2 

.40157 

15.2 

.  59842 

20.2 

.  79527 

.3 

.01181 

5.3 

.20866 

10.3 

.40551 

15.3 

.  60236 

20.3 

.79921 

.4 

.01575 

5.4 

.21259 

10.4 

.40944 

15.4 

.60629 

20.4 

.80314 

.5 

.01968 

5.5 

.21653 

10.5 

.41338 

15.5 

.61023 

20.5 

.80708 

.6 

.02362 

5.6 

.22047 

10.6 

.41732 

15.6 

.61417 

20.6 

.81102 

.7 

.02756 

5.7 

.22440 

10.7 

.42125 

15.7 

.61810 

20.7 

.81495 

.8 

.03149 

5.8 

.22834 

10.8 

.42519 

15.8 

.62204 

20.8 

.81889 

.9 

.03543 

5.9 

.23228 

10.9 

.42913 

15.9 

.62598 

20.9 

.82833 

.0 

.03937 

6.0 

.23622 

11.0 

.43307 

16.0 

.62992 

21.0 

82677 

1 

.04330 

6.1 

.24015 

11.1 

.43700 

16.1 

.63385 

21.1 

.  83070 

.2 

.04724 

6.2 

.24409 

11.2 

.44094 

16.2 

.63779 

21.2 

.83464 

.3 

.05118 

6.3 

.24803 

11.3 

.44488 

16.3 

.64173 

21.3 

.83858 

4 

.05512 

6.4 

.25196 

11.4 

.44881 

16.4 

.64566 

21.4 

.84251 

5 

.05905 

6.5 

.25590 

11.5 

.45275 

16.5 

.64960 

21.5 

.  84645 

.6 

.06299 

6.6 

.25984 

11.6 

.45669 

16.6 

.  65354 

21.6 

.85039 

.7 

.06692 

6.7 

.26377 

11.7 

.46062 

16.7 

.  65747 

21.7 

.85432 

.8 

.07086 

6.8 

.26771 

11.8 

.46456 

16.8 

.66141 

21.8 

.85826 

.9 

.07480 

6.9 

.27165 

11.9 

.46850 

16.9 

.66535 

21.9 

.86220 

2.0 

.07874 

7.0 

.27559 

12.0 

.47244 

17.0 

.66929 

22.0 

.86614 

2.1 

.08267 

7.1 

.27952 

12.1 

.47637 

17.1 

.67322 

22.1 

.87007 

2.2 

.08661 

7.2 

.28346 

12.2 

.48031 

17.2 

.67716 

22.2 

.87401 

23 

.09055 

7.3 

.28740 

12.3 

.48425 

17.3 

.68110 

22.3 

.87795 

2.4 

.09448 

7.4 

.29133 

12.4 

.48818 

17.4 

.68503 

22.4 

.88188 

2.5 

.09842 

7.5 

.29527 

12.5 

.49212 

17.5 

.68897 

22.5 

.88582 

2.6 

.10236 

7  6 

.29921 

12.6 

.49606 

17.6 

.69291 

22.6 

.88976 

2.7 

.  10629 

7.7 

.30314 

12.7 

.49999 

17.7 

.69684 

22.7 

.89369 

2.8 

.11023 

7.8 

.30708 

12.8 

.50393 

17.8 

.70078 

22.8 

.89763 

2.9 

.11417 

7.9 

.31102 

12.9 

.50787 

17.9 

.70472 

22.9 

.90157 

3.0 

.11811 

8.0 

.31496 

13.0 

.51181 

18.0 

.70866 

23.0 

.90551 

3.1 

.  12204 

8.1 

.31889 

13.1 

.51574 

18.1 

.71259 

23.1 

.90944 

3.2 

.  12598 

8.2 

.32283 

13.2 

.51968 

18.2 

.71653 

23.2 

.91338 

3.3 

.12992 

8.3 

.32677 

13.3 

.52362 

18.3 

.72047 

23.3 

.91732 

3.4 

.  13385 

8.4 

.33070 

13.4 

.52755 

18.4 

.  72440 

23.4 

.92125 

3.5 

.13779 

8.5 

.33464 

13.5 

.53149 

18.5 

.72834 

23.5 

.92519 

3.6 

.14173 

8.6 

.33858 

13.6 

.53543 

18.6 

.  73228 

23.6 

.92913 

3.7 

.  14566 

8.7 

.34251 

13.7 

.  53936 

18.7 

.73621 

23.7 

.93306 

3.8 

.14960 

8.8 

.34645 

13  8 

.54330 

18.8 

.74015 

23.8 

.93700 

3.9 

.15354 

8.9 

.35039 

13.9 

.54724 

18.9 

.74409 

23.9 

.94094 

4.0 

.15748 

9.0 

.35433 

14.0 

.55118 

19.0 

.74803 

24.0 

.94488 

4.1 

.16141 

9.1 

.35826 

14.1 

.55511 

19.1 

.75196 

24.1 

.94881 

4.2 

16535 

9.2 

.36220 

14.2 

.55905 

19.2 

.75590 

24.2 

.95275 

4.3 

.16929 

9.3 

.36614 

14.3 

.56299 

19.3 

.75984 

24.3 

.95669 

4.4 

.17322 

9.4 

.37007 

14.4 

.56692 

19.4 

.76377 

24.4 

.96062 

4.5 

.17716 

9.5 

.37401 

14.5 

.57086 

19.5 

.76771 

24.5 

.96456 

4.6 

.18110 

9.6 

.37795 

14.6 

.57480 

19.6 

.77165 

24.6 

.96850 

4.7 

.18503 

9.7 

.38188 

14.7 

.57873 

19.7 

.77558 

24.7 

.97243 

4.8 

.18897 

9.8 

.38582 

14.8 

.58267 

19.8 

.77952 

24.8 

.97637 

4.9 

.19291 

9.9 

.38976 

14.9 

.58661 

19.9 

.78346 

24.9 

.98031 

5.0 

.19685 

10.0 

.39370 

15.0 

.59055 

20.0 

.78740 

25.0 

.98425 

MILLIMETERS  WITH  EQUIVALENTS  IN  INCHES.        175 


TABLE  OF  MILLIMETERS  WITH  EQUIVALENTS  IN  INCHES.  Cont'd. 

From  yV  to  100  m/m  Advancing  by  T^  Millimeter. 


M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

25.1 

.98818 

30.1 

.  18503 

35.1 

1.38188 

40.1 

1.57873 

45.1 

1.77558 

25.2 

.99212 

30.2 

.18897 

35.2 

1.38582 

40.2 

1  58267 

45.2 

.77952 

25.3 

.99606 

30.3 

.19291 

35.3 

1.38976 

40.3 

1.58661 

45.3 

.  78346 

25.4 

.99999 

30.4 

.19684 

35.4 

1.G9369 

40.4 

1  .  59054 

45.4 

.  78739 

25.5 

1.00393 

30.5 

.20078 

35.5 

1.39763 

40.5 

1.59448 

45.5 

.79133 

25.6 

1.00787 

30.6 

.20472 

35.6 

1.40157 

40.6 

1.59842 

45.6 

.79527 

25.7 

1.01180 

30.7 

.20865 

35.7 

1.40550 

40.7 

1.60235 

45.7 

.79920 

25.8 

1.01574 

30.8 

.21259 

35.8 

1.40944 

40.8 

1.60629 

45.8 

.80314 

25.9 

.01968 

30.9 

.21653 

35.9 

1.41338 

40.9 

1.61023 

45.9 

.80708 

26.0 

.02362 

31.0 

.22047 

36.0 

1.41732 

41.0 

1.61417 

46.0 

.81102 

26.1 

.02755 

31.1 

.22440 

36.1 

1  .42125 

41.1 

1.61810 

46.1 

.81495 

26.2 

.03149 

31.2 

.22834 

36.2 

1.42519 

41.2 

1.62204 

46.2 

.81889 

26.3 

.03543 

31.3 

.23228 

36.3 

1.42913 

41.3 

1.62598 

46.3 

1.82283 

26.4 

.03936 

31.4 

1.23621 

36.4 

1.43306 

41.4 

1.62991 

46.4 

1.82676 

26.5 

.04330 

31.5 

1.24015 

36.5 

1  .43700 

41.5 

1.63385 

46.5 

1.83070 

26.6 

.04724 

31.6 

1.24409 

36.6 

1.44094 

41.6 

1.63779 

46.6 

1.83464 

26.7 

.05117 

31.7 

1.24802 

36.7 

1.44487 

41.7 

1.64172 

46.7 

.83857 

26.8 

.05511 

31.8 

1.25196 

36.8 

1  .44881 

41.8 

1.64566 

46.8 

.84251 

26.9 

.05905 

31.9 

1.25590 

36.9 

1  45275 

41.9 

1.64960 

46.9 

.84645 

27.0 

.06299 

32.0 

1.25984 

37.0 

1.45669 

42.0 

.65354 

47.0 

.85039 

27.1 

.06692 

32.1 

1.26377 

37.1 

1.46062 

42.1 

.65747 

47.1 

.  85432 

27.2 

1.07086 

32.2 

1.26771 

37.2 

1.46456 

42.2 

.66141 

47.2 

.85826 

27.3 

1  .  07480 

32.3 

1.27165 

37.3 

1.46850 

42.3 

.66535 

47.3 

1.86220 

27.4 

1  07873 

32.4 

1.27558 

37.4 

.47243 

42.4 

.66928 

47.4 

1.86613 

27.5 

1.08267 

32.5 

1.27952 

37.5 

.47637 

42.5 

.67322 

47.5 

1.87007 

27.6 

1.08661 

32.6 

1.28346 

37.6 

.48031 

42.6 

1.67716 

47.6 

1.87401 

27.7 

1.09054 

32.7 

1.28739 

37.7 

.48424 

42.7 

1.68109 

47.7 

1.87794 

27.8 

1.09448 

32.8 

1.29133 

37.8 

.48818 

42.8 

1.68503 

47.8 

1.88188 

27.9 

1.09842 

32.9 

1.29527 

37.9 

.49212 

42.9 

1.68897 

47.9 

1.88582 

28.0 

1.10236 

33.0 

1.29921 

38.0 

.49606 

43.0 

1.69291 

48.0 

1  .  88976 

28.1 

1.10629 

33.1 

1.30314 

38.1 

1.49999 

43.1 

.69684 

48.1 

1.89369 

28.2 

1.11023 

33.2 

1.30708 

38.2 

1.50393 

43.2 

.70078 

48.2 

1  .  89763 

28.3 

1.11417 

33.3 

1.31102 

38.3 

1.50787 

43.3 

.70472 

48.3 

1.90157 

28.4 

1.11810 

33.4 

1.31495 

38.4 

1.51180 

43.4 

.70865 

48.4 

1.90550 

28.5 

1.12204 

33.5 

1.31889 

38.5 

1.51574 

43.5 

.71259 

48.5 

1.90944 

28.6 

1.12598 

33.6 

1.32283 

38.6 

1.51968 

43.6 

.71653 

48.6 

1.91338 

28.7 

1.12991 

33.7 

1.32676 

38.7 

1.52361 

43.7 

1.72046 

48.7 

1.91731 

28.8 

1.13385 

33.8 

1.33070 

38.8 

1.52755 

43.8 

1.72440 

48.8 

.92125 

28.9 

1.13779 

33.9 

1.33464 

38.9 

1.53149 

43.9 

1.72834 

48.9 

.92519 

29.0 

1.14173 

34.0 

1.33858 

39.0 

1.53543 

44.0 

1.73228 

49.0 

.92913 

29.1 

1  .  14566 

34.1 

1.34251 

39.1 

1.53936 

44.1 

1.73621 

49.1 

.93306 

29.2 

1  .  14960 

34.2 

1.34645 

39.2 

1.54330 

44.2 

t.  74015 

49.2 

.93700 

29.3 

1.15354 

34.3 

1.35039 

39.3 

1.54724 

44.3 

1  .  74409 

49.3 

.94094 

29.4 

1.15747 

34.4 

1.35432 

39.4 

1.55117 

44.4 

1.74802 

49.4 

.94487 

29.5 

1.16141 

34.5 

1.35826 

39.5 

1.55511 

44.5 

1.75196 

49.5 

.94881 

29.6 

1.16535 

34.6 

1.36220 

39.6 

1.55905 

44.6 

1.75590 

49.6 

.95275 

29.7 

1.16928 

34.7 

1.36613 

39.7 

1.56298 

44.7 

1.75983 

49.7 

.95668 

29.8 

1.17322 

34.8 

1.37007 

39.8 

1.56692 

44.8 

1.76377 

49.8 

.96062 

29.9 

1.17716 

34.9 

1.37401 

39.9 

1.57086 

44.9 

1.76771 

49.9 

.96456 

30.0 

1.18110 

35.0 

1.37795 

40.0 

1.57480 

45.0 

1.77165 

50.0 

1.96850 

176 


ELEMENTS  OF  MACHINE   WORK. 


TABLE  OF  MILLIMETERS  WITH  EQUIVALENTS  IN  INCHES.  Cont'd. 
From  j^  to  100  m  /m  Advancing  by  j1^  Millimeter. 


M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M.  INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M.  j  INCHES. 

50.1 

1.97243 

55.1 

2.16928 

60.1  2.36613 

65.1 

2  .  56298 

70.1  2.75983 

50.2 

1.97637 

55.2 

2.17322 

60.2  2.37007 

65.2  2.56692 

70.2  2.76377 

50.3 

1.98031 

55.3 

2.17716 

60.3  2.37401 

65.3  2.57086 

70.3  2.76771 

50.4 

1.98424 

55.4 

2.18109 

60.4  2.37794 

65.4 

2.57479 

70.4  2.77164 

50.5 

1.98818 

55.5 

2  .  18503 

60.5  2.38188 

65.5 

2.57873 

70.  5  |2.  77558 

50.6 

1.99212 

55.6 

2.18897 

60.  6  !2.  38582 

65.6 

2.58267 

70.6  2.77952 

50.7 

1.99605 

55.7 

2  .  19290 

60.  7  \2.  38975 

65.7 

2.58660 

70.7  2.78345 

50.8 

1.99999 

55.8 

2.19684 

60.812.39369 

65.8 

2.59054 

70.8  2.78739 

50.9 

.00393 

55.9 

2.20078 

60.9 

2.39763 

65.9 

2.59448 

70.9  2.79133 

51.0 

.00787 

56.0 

2.20472 

61.0 

2.40157 

66.0 

2.59842 

71.0  2.79527 

51.1 

.01180 

56.1 

2.20865 

61.1 

2.40550 

66.1 

2.60235 

71.1  2.79920 

51.2 

.01574 

56.2 

2.21259 

61.2 

2.40944 

66.2 

2.60629 

71.2  2.80314 

51.3 

.01968 

56.3 

2.21653 

61.3 

2.41338 

66-3 

2.61023 

71.3  2.80708 

51.4 

.02361 

56.4 

2.22046 

61.4 

2.41731 

66.4 

2.61416 

"1.4  2.81101 

51.5 

.02755 

56.5 

2.22440 

61.5 

2.42125 

66.5  2.61810 

71.5  2.81495 

51.6 

.03149 

56.6 

2.22834 

61.6 

2.42519 

66.6  2.62204 

71.6  2.81889 

51.7 

.03542 

56.7 

2.23227 

61.7  2.42912 

66.7  2.62597 

71.7  2.82282 

51.8 

.03936 

56.8 

2.23621 

61.8 

2.43306 

66.8  2.62991 

71.8:2.82676 

51.9 

.04330 

56.9 

2.24015 

61.9 

2.43700 

66.9  2.63385 

71.9  2.83070 

52.0 

.04724 

57.0 

2  .  24409 

62.0 

2.44094 

67.0 

2.63779 

72.0  2.83464 

52.1 

.05117 

57.1 

2.24802 

62.1 

2.44487 

67.1 

2.64172 

72.1  2.83857 

52.2 

.05511 

57.2 

2.25196 

62.2 

2.44881 

67.2 

2.64566 

72.2  2.84251 

52.3 

.05905 

57.3 

2.25590 

62.3 

2.45275 

67.3  2.64960 

72.3  2.84645 

52.4 

.06298 

57.4 

2.25983 

62.4 

2.45668 

67.4  2.65353 

72.4  2.85038 

52.5 

.06692 

57.5 

2.26377 

62.5  2.46062 

67.5  2.65747 

72.5  2.85432 

52.6 

.07086 

57.6 

2.26771 

62.6  2.46456 

67.  6\2.  66141 

72.6  2.85826 

52.7 

2.07479 

57.7 

2.27164 

62.7  2.46849 

67.7  2.66534 

72.7  2.86219 

52.8 

2.07873 

57.8 

2  .  27558 

62.8  2.47243 

67.8  2.66928 

72.8  2.86613 

52.9 

2.08267 

57.9 

2.27952 

62.9  2.47637 

67.9  2.67322 

72.9  2.87007 

53.0 

2.08661 

58.0 

2.28346 

63.0  2.48031 

68.0  2.67716 

73.0  2.87401 

53.1 

2.09054 

58.1 

2.28739 

63.1  2.48424 

68.1  2.68109 

73.1  2.87794 

53.2 

2.09448 

58.2 

2.29133 

63.2  2.48818 

68.2 

2.68503 

73.2  2.88188 

53.3 

2.09842 

58.3 

2.29527 

63.3 

2.49212 

68.3 

2  .  68897 

73.3  2.88582 

53.4 

2  .  10235 

58.4 

2.29920 

63.4 

2.49605 

68.  4  12.69290 

73.4  2.88975 

53.5 

2.10629 

58.5 

2.30314 

63.5  2.49999 

68.5  2.69684 

73.5  2.89369 

53.6 

2.11023 

58.6 

2.30708 

63.6 

2.50393 

68.6 

2  .  70078 

73.6  2.89763 

53.7 

2.11416 

58.7 

2.31101 

63.7 

2.50786 

68.7 

2.70471 

73.7  2.90156 

53.8 

2.11810 

58.8 

2.31495 

63.8 

2.51180 

68.8 

2  .  70865 

73.8  2.90550 

53.9 

2.12204 

58.9 

2.31889 

63.9 

2.51574 

68.9 

2.71259 

73.9  2.90944 

54.0 

2.12598 

59.0 

2.32283 

64.0 

2.51968 

69.0 

2.71653 

74.0  2.91338 

54.1 

2.12991 

59.1 

2.32676 

64.1 

2.52361 

69.1 

2.72046 

74.1  2.91731 

54.2 

2.13385 

59.2 

2.33070 

64.2 

2  .  52755 

69.2 

2  .  72440 

74.2  2.92125 

54.3 

2.13779 

59.3 

2.33464 

64.3 

2.53149 

69.3 

2  .  72834 

74.  3  i2.  92519 

54.4 

2.14172 

59.4 

2.33857 

64.4 

2.53542 

69.4 

2.73227 

74.4  2.92912 

'54.5 

2.14566 

59.5  2.34251 

64.5 

2.53936 

69.5 

2.73621 

74.5  2.93306 

54.6 

2  .  14960 

59.6 

2.34645 

64.6 

2.54330 

69.6  2.74015 

74.6  2.93700 

54.7 

2  .  15353 

59.7 

2.35038 

64.7 

2.54723 

69.7 

2  .  74408 

74.7  2.94093 

54.8 

2.15747 

59.8 

2.35432 

64.8 

2.55117 

69.8! 

2  .  74802 

74.8  2.94487 

54.9 

2.16141 

59.9 

2.35826 

64.9 

2.55511 

69.9, 

2.75196 

74.9  2.94881 

55.0 

2.16535 

60.0 

2.36220 

65.0 

2.55905 

70.  0; 

2  .  75590 

75  0  '2.  95275 

MILLIMETERS  WITH  EQUIVALENTS  IN  INCHES.       177 


TABLE  OF  MILLIMETERS  WITH  EQUIVALENTS  IN  INCHES.  Concl'd. 
From  YQ  to  100  m/m  Advancing  by  T^  Millimeter. 


M/M. 

INCHES. 

M  /M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

M/M. 

INCHES. 

75.1 

2.95668 

80.1 

3.15353 

85.1 

3.35038 

90.1 

3.54723 

95.1 

3.74408 

75.2 

2.96062 

80.2 

3.15747 

85.2 

3.35432 

90.2 

3.55117 

95.2 

3.74802 

75.3 

2.96456 

80.3 

3.16141 

85.3 

3.35826 

90.3 

3.55511 

95.3 

3.75196 

75.4 

2.96849 

80.4 

3  .  16534 

85.4 

3.36219 

90.4 

3.55904 

95.4 

3.75589 

75.5 

2.97243 

80.5 

3  .  16928 

85.5 

3.36613 

90.5 

3.56298 

95.5 

3.75983 

75.6 

2.97637 

80.6 

3.17322 

85.6 

3.37007 

90.6 

3.56692 

95.6 

3.76377 

75.7 

2.98030 

80.7 

3.17715 

85.7 

3.37400 

90.7 

3.57085 

95.7 

3.76770 

75.8 

2.98424 

80.8 

3.18109 

85.8 

3.37794 

90.8 

3.57479 

95.8 

3.77164 

75.9 

2.98818 

80.9 

3.18503 

85.9 

3.38188 

90.9 

3.57873 

95.9 

3.77558 

76.0 

2.99212 

81.0 

3  .  18897 

86.0 

3.38582 

91.0 

3.58267 

96.0 

3.77952 

76.1 

2.99605 

81.1 

3.19290 

86.1 

3.38975 

91.1 

3.58660 

96.1 

3.78345 

76.2 

2.99999 

81.2 

3.19684 

86.2 

3.39369 

91.2 

3  .69054 

96.2 

3.78739 

76.3 

3.00393 

81.3 

3.20078 

86.3 

3.39763 

91.3 

3.59448 

96.3 

3.79133 

76.4 

3.00786 

81.4 

3.20471 

86.4 

3.40156 

91.4 

3.59841 

96.4 

3  .  79526 

76.5 

3.01180 

81.5 

3.20865 

86.5 

3.40550 

91.5 

3.60235 

96.5 

3.79920 

76.6 

3.01574 

81.6 

3.21259 

86.6 

3.40944 

91.6 

3.60629 

96.6 

3.80314 

76.7 

3  01967 

81.7 

3.21652 

86.7 

3.41337 

91.7 

3.61022 

96.7 

3  .  80707 

76.8 

3.02361 

81.8 

3.22046 

86.8 

3.41731 

91.8 

3.61416 

96.8 

3.81101 

76.9 

3.02755 

81.9 

3.22440 

86.9 

3.42125 

91.9 

3.61810 

96.9 

3.81495 

77.0 

3.03149 

82.0 

3.22834 

87.0 

3  .42519 

92.0 

3.62204 

97.0 

3.81889 

77.1 

3.03542 

82.1 

3.23227 

87.1 

3  42912 

92.1 

3.62597 

97.1 

3.82282 

77.2 

3.03936 

82.2 

3.23621 

87.2 

3.43306 

92.2 

3.62991 

97.2 

3.82676 

77.3 

3.04330 

82.3 

3.24015 

87.3 

3.43700 

92.3 

3.63385 

97.3 

3.83070 

77.4 

3.04723 

82.4 

3.24408 

87.4 

3.44093 

92.4 

3.63778 

97.4 

3.83463 

77.5 

3.05117 

82.5 

3.24802 

87.5 

3.44487 

92.5 

3.64172 

97  5 

3.83857 

77.6 

3.05511 

82.6 

3.25196 

87.6 

3.44881 

92  6 

3.64566 

97.6 

3.84251 

77.7 

3.05904 

82.7 

3.25589 

87.7 

3.45274 

92.7 

3.64959 

97.7 

3.84644 

77.8 

3.06298 

82.8 

3.25983 

87.8 

3.45668 

92.8 

3.65353 

97.8 

3.85038 

77.9 

3.06692 

82.9 

3.26377 

87.9 

3.46062 

92.9 

3.65747 

97.9 

3.85432 

78.0 

3.07086 

83.0 

3.26771 

88.0 

3.46456 

93.0 

3.66141 

98.0 

3.85826 

78.1 

3.07479 

83.1 

3.27164 

88.1 

3.46849 

93.1 

3.66534 

98.1 

3.86219 

78.2 

3.07873 

83.2 

3.27558 

88.2 

3.47243 

93  2 

3.66928 

98.2 

3.86613 

78.3 

3.08267 

83.3 

3.27952 

88.3 

3.47637 

93.3 

3.67322 

98.3 

3.87007 

78.4 

3.08660 

83.4 

3.28345 

88.4 

3.48030 

93.4 

3.67715 

98.4 

3.87400 

78.5 

3.09054 

83.5 

3.28739 

88.5 

3.48424 

93.5 

3.68109 

98.5 

3.87794 

78.6 

3.09448 

83.6 

3.29133 

88  6 

3.48818 

93.6 

3.68503 

98.6 

3.88188 

78.7 

3.09841 

83.7 

3.29526 

88.7 

3.49211 

93.7 

3.68896 

98.7 

3.88581 

78.8 

3.10235 

83.8 

3.29920 

88.8 

3.49605 

93.8 

3.69290 

98.8 

3.88975 

78.9 

3  .  10629 

83.9 

3.30314 

88.9 

3.49999 

93.9 

3.69684 

98.9 

3.89369 

79.0 

3.11023 

84.0 

3.30708 

89.0 

3.50393 

94.0 

3.70078 

99.0 

3.89763 

79.1 

3.11416 

84.1 

3.31101 

89.1 

3  .  50786 

94.1 

3.70471 

99.1 

3.90156 

79.2 

3.11810 

84.2 

3.31495 

89.2 

3.51180 

94.2 

3.70865 

99.2 

3.90550 

79.3 

3  .  12204 

84.3 

3.31889 

89.3 

3.51574 

94.3 

3.71259 

99.3 

3.90944 

79.4 

3  .  12597 

84.4 

3.32282 

89.4 

3.51967 

94.4 

3.71652 

99.4 

3.91337 

79.5 

3.12991 

84.5 

3.32676 

89.5 

3.52361 

94.5 

3.72046 

99.5 

3.91731 

79.6 

3.13385 

84.6 

3.33070 

89.6 

3.52755 

94.6 

3.72440 

99.6 

3.92125 

79.7 

3  .  13778 

84.7 

3.33463 

89.7 

3.53148 

94.7 

3.72833 

99.7 

3.92518 

79.8 

3.14172 

84.8 

3.33857 

89.8 

3  .  53542 

94.8 

3.73227 

99.8 

3.92912 

79.9 

3  .  14566 

84.9 

3.34251 

89.9 

3  .  53936 

94.9 

3.73621 

99.9 

3.93306 

80.0 

3  .  14960 

85.0 

3.34645 

90.0 

3  54330 

95.0 

3.74015 

100 

3.93700 

178 


ELEMENTS  OF  MACHINE  WORK. 


374.    TABLE  OF  FREEZING,  MELTING,  AND  BOILING  TEMPER- 
ATURES OF  METALS  AND  COMMON  SUBSTANCES. 

From  Standard  Authorities. 
(-)    =  below  0. 


Fahrenheit 

(F.) 

Centigrade 

(C.) 

Greatest  natural  cold  
Mercury  freezes  ...                .    .         

-94° 
—  39 

-70° 
—  39 

Snow  and  salt  melts  
Human  blood  freezes  
Sea  water  freezes    

0 
26 

28 

-18 
-   3 
—   2 

32 

o 

Heat  of  human  blood  
For   fusing   metal,    25   parts   lead,   25   parts   tin, 
50  parts  bismuth   250  parts  mercury 

98.8 
113 

36 

45 

Highest  natural  temperature 

117 

47 

Gutta-percha  softens 

145 

63 

Alcohol  boils 

173 

78 

\Vater  boils 

212 

100 

Milk  boils                            

213 

101 

Sulphur  melts                    .        

272 

120 

Saturated  brine  boils  
Gutta-percha  vulcanizes          

226 
293 

108 
145 

Common  solder  (tin  1,  lead  1)  

370-466 

188-241 

Steam  at  80  Ibs 

324 

162 

Steam  at  100  Ibs  

338 

170 

Wood  burns  
Fine  solder  melts  (blowpipe)  (tin  2   lead  1) 

340 
360 

171 

182 

Plumbers'  solder  (tin  1    lead  2") 

475 

246 

Fusible  plugs  melt  

445 

230 

Tin  melts                                                      

449 

232 

Bismuth  melts                                             

517 

269 

Dividing  line  between  mercury  thermometer  and 
pyrometer                                                

675 

357 

Lead  melts      .                                     

621 

327 

Mercury  boils  .                    .         

675 

357 

787 

419 

790 

421 

800 

427 

1166 

630 

Magnesium  melts                                                         •  •  • 

1171 

633 

Aluminum  melts                                                   

1213 

657 

Bronze  melts                                                  

1652 

900 

Silver  melts                                                  

1751 

955 

Brazing  solder  (hard  solder)  (copper  1,  zinc  1)  .  .  .  . 

1800 
1832 

983 
1000 

1681 

916 

Briss  rod  (rolled  brass)  melts 

1706 

930 

Gold  melts                                                                     .  .  . 

1947 

1064 

FREEZING,  MELTING  AND  BOILING  TEMPERATURES.    179 


TABLE  OF  FREEZING,  MELTING,  AND  BOILING  TEMPERA- 
TURES OF  METALS  AND  COMMON  SUBSTANCES. 
Concluded. 


Fahrenheit. 

(F.) 

Centigrade. 
(C.) 

Copper  me  Its 

1949-1983 

1065-1084 

Cast  iron  (white  pig)  melts  .  .  . 

1922-2075 

1050-1135 

Cast  iron  (gray  pig)  melts  ...                  ... 

2012-2786 

1100-1530 

Steel  (ferro  tungsen)  rnelts          

2240-2280 

1226-1248 

Emery  wheels  are  vitrified  
Hard  steel  melts  

3000 
2570 

1648 
1410 

Mild  steel  melts  '  

2462-2552 

1350-1400 

Wrought  iron  melts  
Nickel  melts 

2700-2920 
2703 

1482-1604 
1484 

Iron  (pure)  melts 

2912 

1600 

Platinum  melts  .  . 

3236 

1780 

Manganese  melts    . 

3452 

1900 

Fire-brick  melts 

4000-5000 

2204-2760 

Carborundum  produced  
Alundum  produced  

7000 
7000 

3870 
3870 

375.  Cleaning  castings.  —  Tumbling  barrels  or  mills,  also 
called  rumblers,  have  largely  superseded  the  pickling  method 
of  removing  sand,  scale,  and  cores  from  all  kinds  of  castings. 

The  castings  are  put  in  the  tumbling  barrel  or  mill  with 
some  smaller  castings,  and  "  star  shot  "  (iron),  and  are 
cleaned  by  their  rolling  and  rubbing  action  as  the  barrel  is 
revolved  by  power.  The  gates,  sprues,  risers  and  fins  on 
the  castings  are  removed  by  hand  or  by  pneumatic  chipping. 
Steel  castings  are  usually  cleaned  with  a  sand  blast,  and  the 
gates,  sprues,  risers  and  fins  are  removed  by  drilling  and 
planing. 

Pickle  for  iron  castings.  —  Iron  castings  may  be  immersed 
for  a  short  time  in  a  solution  of  one  part  sulphuric  acid  and 
from  two  to  three  parts  water,  to  soften  and  loosen  the  sand 
and  scale.  See  Tumbling  Barrel. 

Cleaning  brass,  composition,  bronze  and  copper  castings, 
etc.  —  These  castings  do  not  always  need  tumbling  or  pickling 
as  they  may  be  cleaned  by  brushing  and  the  cores  removed 
by  dipping  while  hot,  in  cold  running  water. 

Aluminium  castings  are  cleaned  by  brushing. 


INDEX. 


Page 

Abrasives,  manufactured 71 

natural 71,  72 

Acid  solutions  for  etching 171 

Acid,  nitric 171 

pyroligneous 171 

sulphuric 179 

Air   blast   for   hardening   high-speed 

steel  tools 91 

Alining    and    leveling    shafting,    line 

and  level  method  of 166,  167 

Alining  and  leveling  shafting,  transit 

method  of 168,  169 

Alining  pulleys 158,  159 

Alloys 6,  7 

Aluminium 
Aluminum 

Aluminium  bronze 7 

castings 7,  8 

pipe  and  fittings 112 

Aluminium  castings,  cleaning 179 

Alundum 71 

Annealed  iron  castings 76 

steel  castings 5 

Annealed  steel  bars,  commercial 75 

Annealing  brass 76 

bronze 76 

carbon  steel 75,  79 

case-hardened  work 96 

copper 76 

high-speed  steel 91 

Annealing,  water 75 

Asbestos  joint  runner Ill,  112 

washers 112,  113 

Assembly  drawings 9 

Automatic  center  punch 23,  24 

B 

Babbitt  bearings,  scraping 70,  71 

metal 7 

Babbitting  bearings 151,  152 

Balancing  pulleys 165,  166 

Barium  chloride  for  heating  finished 

high-speed  steel  tools 93,  94 

Barrels,  tumbling 179 


Page 

Bastard  files 47-52,  58,  59 

Baths,  brine 78 

cleansing 79 

mercury 78,  79 

oil 78 

special 79 

water 78,  79 

Bearings,  Babbitting 151,  152 

scraping  bronze 70,  71 

Babbitt 70,  71 

Bedding  to  mark  work  for  scraping 

or  filing 70 

Belt  clamps 161 

dressing 163 

hooks 162 

punches 159 

Belt  lacing,  coil  wire 162 

rawhide 159 

Belting,  cotton 155 

leather 155,  156 

rubber 155,  156 

Belts,  cementing  or  gluing 162,  163 

cross 157,  158 

endless 162,  163 

joining  ends  of 159-163 

lacing 159-162 

length  of  cross 157,  158 

open 156,  157 

open 156,  157 

quarter-turn  and  twisted  ...  158,  159 

slip  of 155 

Bench  surface  gages 22,  23 

Bessemer  steel 4 

wire 6 

Black  lead.     See  Graphite. 

Block-tin  pipe 112 

Blowpipes  for  brazing 148-150 

Blow  holes  in  pipe  fittings  and  cast- 
ings, plugging 172 

Blue  prints 13 

Bluing  revolvers 171 

steel  or  iron  light  or  dark 171 

Bone  for  case-hardening 95,  96 

Borax  for  brazing 148 

,      6,  7 


181 


182 


INDEX. 


Page 
Brass  and  copper  seamless  tubes  in 

iron  pipe  sizes 118 

Brass  tubing 109-111 

Brass,  annealing 76 

files  for 52,  53 

soldering 146-148 

Brass  and  bronze  castings,  cleaning.      179 
Brass    pipe    and    fittings,    iron    pipe 

sizes 109,  110 

Brass  pipe    and    fittings,     plumbers' 

sizes 109,  110 

Brazed  tubing 110 

Brazed  work,  pickle  for 151 

Brazing 148-151 

automobile  parts 148-150 

cast  iron 150,  151 

forges 148-150 

rocker  arm 148,  149 

solder 148 

with  hand  blowpipe 148,  149 

portable  blowpipe. . .  150,  151 

spelter 148-151 

stationary  blowpipe.  149,  150 

Brazing,  blowpipes  for 148-150 

flux  for 148 

Breaks  on  drawings 11 

Breast  drilling  machines 144 

Briggs'     Standard      pipe      measure- 
ments  115,  116 

Brine  baths 78 

Bronze 6,  7 

castings 7 

pipe  or  tubes 109 

Bronze,  aluminium 7 

manganese 7 

phosphor 7 

to  anneal 76 

Tobin 7 

Browning  gunbarrels 171,  172 

steel  and  iron 171,  172 


Calipers,  inside 19 

keyhole 19 

outside 19 

Cape  chisel 35 

Carbon 4 

steel 4,  5,  6 

wire 6 

Carbon  steel,  annealing 75,  79 

commercial  annealed  ...      75 

hardening 75-90 

tempering 75-90 

Carborundum. .        71 


Card,  file 53 

Case-hardened  work,  annealing 96 

cleaning 96 

rehardening.  ...        96 

Case-hardening 94-96 

by  carbonizing  gas.  .  94,  96 

cast  iron 172 

machine  parts 94-96 

with  bone 95,  96 

colors 96 

cyanide  of  potas- 
sium  94,  95 

prussiate  of  pot- 
ash  94,  95 

without  colors 95 

Cast  iron 3 

pipe Ill,  112 

Cast  iron,  to  braze 150,  151 

Cast-iron   straight   edges,    standard 

scraped 70 

Castings,  aluminium 7,  8 

bronze 7 

cleaning 179 

composition 6 

iron 3,  5 

malleable  iron 5 

pickle  for 179 

snagging 32,  179 

steel 5 

vanadium  iron 3 

steel 5 

Cement,  litharge 113 

pipe  joint 109 

rust  joint  or  special 172 

Cementing  or  gluing  belts 162,  163 

Center  chisel 37 

punch 22,  80-82 

square 20 

Center  punch,  automatic 23,  24 

Centigrade 89,  178,  179 

Chain  drive 155 

Chalk 17 

Charcoal 82 

Chart  of  brass  pipe  and  tubing  tools .  .      130 

cocks 123 

driven     and    bored-well    fit- 
tings        123 

gas  fittings! 123 

nickel-plated  fittings 123 

railing  fittings 123 

tools  for  nickel-plated  tubing     130 

valves 123 

Charts  of  pipe  fittings 119,  123 

pipe  tools 127,  130 

Check  system  for  tool  room 2 


INDEX. 


183 


Page 

Chip,  finish 32 

rough 32 

Chipping 29-39 

hammers 30,  31 

Chipping,  correct  position  for 33 

lubricant  for 34 

pneumatic 39 

Chipping  plane  surfaces,  schedule  of 

operations  for 38 

Chisels,  cape 35 

center 37 

cold 31-37 

diamond-point 37 

flat 31 

grinding  cold 32,  44,  45 

hardening  and  tempering 80-82 

improved 31 

large  round-nose 36 

method  of  using 32-36 

oil-groove 37 

side 37 

small  round-nose 36 

Chloride    for  heating   finished   tools, 

barium 93,  94 

Chrome  steel 5 

Clamps,  belt 161 

Clay  to  prevent  hardening 76 

Cleansing  baths 79 

Coal  furnaces 95 

Coarse-cut  files 47,  48 

Cocks 123,  124 

Coil  wire  belt  lacing 162 

Coils  and  bends,  pipe 137 

Cold  chisels 31-37,  80-82 

Cold-rolled  shafting 5,  153 

steel  and  wrought  iron. . .      5,  6 

Cold  saw  cutting-off  machine 105 

Color  test  for  tempering 76,  77 

Color,  identifying  pipe  lines  by 118 

Combination  square 20 

Composition  castings 6 

Composition     and    copper    castings, 

cleaning 179 

Conduits  or  tubes,  electric 107 

Cooling  baths  for  hardening  steel ....        78 

tanks 78,  80-87,  92-95 

Copper 6 

pipe  tubing  and  fittings  ...  109,  110 

wire 7 

Copper,  to  anneal 76 

to  harden ' 6 

Copper  sulphate,  use  of 17,  18 

Corundum 71 

Crayon  (soapstone),  metal  workers. .      142 
Crocus 72 


Page 

Cross  belts 157,  158 

Cross  belts,  length  of 157,  158 

Crown  and  straight-face  pulleys 154 

Crude  oil  furnaces 87 

Cut,  finishing 32 

roughing 32 

Cuts  of  files 46-48 

Cutter,  pipe 127-131,  134,  135 

to  harden  and  temper  high- 
speed steel 92 

Cutters,  wire 27,  28 

Cutting-off   attachment  for  pipe  die 

stock 127,  128 

Cutting-off  machine,  electric  drive.  104,  105 

metal  saw 105 

Cutting  off  pipe,  hand  method  of.  134,  135 
Cyanide  of  potassium 94,  95 


Dead-smooth  files 47,  49 

Depth  gages 21 

Detail  drawings 9 

Diamond-point  chisel 37 

Diamond-point  tool,  hardening 82,  83 

tempering 82,  83 

Diamond  tool  for  truing  emery  wheel       43 
Die  stocks,  pipe ....  126-128,  130,  132,  133 

filing 63,  64 

Dies,  pipe..  108, 126,  127,  130-133,  138,  139 
plumbers'  sizes    or  fine   thread 

pipe 130,  131 

Dimensions  on  drawings 13 

Dividers 19 

Double-cut  files 46,  47 

Double-extra      strong     wrought-iron 

pipe,  table  of  dimensions  of 117 

Draw-filing 62 

Drawings,  assembly 9 

breaks  on 11,  12 

detail 9 

dimension-limit  system ...        15 

dimensions  on 13 

isometric 8,9 

lines  on 10 

mechanical 9-15 

order  of  reading  working. .        14 

'  pencil  sketches  ' 13,  14 

perspective 8 

reading 8,  14 

scale  of 13 

schedule-of-operations ....        13 

section  lining  on 11 

sections  on 10,  11 

table  of  abbreviations  on  .        12 
working 9-15 


184 


INDEX. 


Page 

Dresser,  emery  wheel 42 

Drilling  machines,  breast 144 

ratchet 145 

Driven  and  bored  well-fittings, chart  of  123 

Drop  forgings 5 

[E 

Electric  conduits  or  tubes 107 

Electric  furnaces  for  heating  to  harden  78 

Emery 71 

or  grinding  wheels 40-43 

paper 72 

wheel  dresser 42 

Emery,  flour  of 72 

number  of 72 

Emery  cloth,   order  of  applying  dif- 
ferent grades  of 73 

Emery  wheel,  diamond  tool  for  truing  43 

to  true 42,  43 

Emery  wheels,  to  calculate  speed  of  41 
Equipment   for   manufacturing  ma- 
chines    2 

Equipment  for  teaching  machine  con- 
struction    2 

Etching  names  and  figures  on  har- 
dened steel 171 

Etching,  acid  solutions  for 171 

Extra  strong  wrought-iron  pipe,  table 

of  dimensions  of 117 


Fahrenheit 89,  178,  179 

Fiber  washers 113 

File  card 53 

test  for  hardness 76 

temper 77 

File,  bent  riffler 52 

blunt 49 

finish 58 

parts  of 48 

round 52 

safe  edge 48,  60,  61 

round  edge 61 

saw 51 

square 50 

to  bend 59 

File  holder,  surface 60 

Filed  surfaces,  testing  flatness  of.  ...        56 
testing  squareness  of . .       57 

Filing 46-64 

a  die 63,  64 

concave  surfaces 61,  62 

long  holes 61,  62 

machine 63,  64 


Page 

Filing  wire 63 

Filing,  correct  position  for 54-56 

draw 62 

height  of  work  for 53,  54 

removing     large     amount     of 

stock  by 60 

rough 58 

to  lay  out  work  for 57-59 

Filing    plane    surfaces,    schedule    of 

operations  for 57-59 

Files  for  brass 52,  53 

Files,  bastard 47-52,  58,  59 

care  of 53 

classification  of  hand 48 

coarse-cut 47,  48 

coarse  to  fine  grades  of 47 

cuts  of 46-48 

dead-smooth 47,  49 

double-cut 46,  47 

extra  fine 47 

flat 50 

half-round. . 52,  60-62 

hand 49 

hand-cut 64,  65 

handles  for 53 

knife-edge 51 

large 48 

lead  float 52 

lubricant  for 53 

machine-cut 65 

mill 51 

names  of  parts  of 48 

pillar 50 

pinning  of 53 

rasp-cut 46,  47,  52 

shapes  of 46 

single-cut 46,  51 

slim 49 

Swiss  pattern 47 

taper 48,  49,  51 

three-square 51 

to  harden 65 

uses  of  safe-edge 48,  60,  61 

uses  of  different  classes  of. ...        48 

warding 50 

Finish  chip 32 

file 58 

Finishing  cut 32 

Fins 179 

Fire  brick  for  brazing 148-150 

Fittings  for  driven  and  bored  wells  123,  126 
galvanized     wrought-iron 

or  steel  pipe 107 

gas  pipe 123,  125 

lead-lined  pipe 107 


INDEX. 


185 


Page 
Fittings  for  nickel-plated  tubing. . .  123,  124 

railings ....123,  125 

Fittings,  aluminium 112 

malleable  iron 118,  119-126 

measuring  length  of  pipe. .  .      136 

pipe 107-126 

right  and  left  pipe, 

108,  119-121,  136,  137 
tables  of  pipe. . .  120-122,  124-126 

tin-lined  pipe 107,  119,  120 

Flange  pipe  joints,  making  up 111,  113 

Flange  wrench 129,  130 

Flat  files 50 

scrapers 66-68 

Flour  of  emery 72 

Flux  for  brazing 148 

heating  to  harden 78 

soldering 146 

Forges  for  brazing 148-150 

hardening  and  tempering, 

80,  82,  86 

Forging  high-speed  steel  tools 91 

Forgings,  drop 5 

hand 5 

vanadium  steel 5 

Formulas  for  speeds  of  pulleys. ...  154,  155 

Furnaces,  coal 95 

crude  oil 87 

electric 78 

muffle-gas 85,  93 

oil-tempering  gas 88,  90 

soft-metal 86 

Furnaces  for  hardening  and  temper- 
ing  85-87,  92,  93,  95 


G 

Gages,  bench  surface. . . . 

depth 

scratch 

universal  surface. 


,22,23 

,       21 

,       21 

23 


Galvanized  steel  and  wrought-iron . . .         4 
steel    and    wrought-iron 

pipe  and  fittings 107 

Gas,  case-hardening  with 94,  96 

Gas  fittings 123,  125 

Gas  furnace,  lead  hardening 86 

Gas  furnaces  for  heating  to  harden, 

78,  85,  86,  92-94 

Gaskets  for  unions,  piston  rods,  cyl- 
inders, etc 112,  113 

Gates 179 

Gears,  to  calculate  speed  of 164,  165 

train  of 164 

Gluing  or  cementing  belts 162,  163 

Gold,  to  solder 148 


Page 

Grades  of  files,  coarse  to  fine 47 

Graphite 108 

Grinders,  wet  tool 40,  42,  43 

Grinding  cold  chisels 32,  44,  45 

high-speed  steel  tools 92 

tools 44,  45 

Grinding  wheels,  emery 40-43 

Grindstone 43,  44 

Grindstone,  truing 44 

Guide  pulleys 159 

Gun  barrels,  browning 171 

Gun  metal...  7 


Hack  saw,  hand 102 

power 102,  103 

Half-round  files 52,  60-62 

rasp 47,  52 

Hammer,  method  of  using 33,  34 

pneumatic 39 

Hammers,  chipping 30,  31,  33 

Hand  blowpipe 148,  149 

Hand-cut  files. 64,  65 

Hand-smooth  files 47,  49 

Hand  drilling  machines 144,  145 

files 49 

Handles  for  files 53 

Hangers,  spacing  of 66 

Hard  soldering 148 

Harden,  flux  for  heating  to 78 

forge  fire  for  heating  to 77,  80 

muffle  for  heating  to 77,  78 

Hardness,  file  test  for 76 

scleroscope  scale  of 99 

scleroscope  test  for 98 

Hardening  a  tap 85,  93,  94 

and  tempering  chisels.  . .  .80-82 
and     tempering     finished 

tools 85-90,  93,  94 

and  tempering  high-speed 

steel  removable  cutter . .       92 
and  tempering  high-speed 

steel  tools 90-94 

and  tempering  springs. .  .85,  89 

carbon  steel 75-90 

carbon     steel     milling 

cutter 87 

diamond-point  tool 82,  83 

files 65 

high-speed    steel    milling 

cutter 93 

high-speed   steel    tap    in 

barium  chloride 93,  94 

mandrel 86,  87 


186 


INDEX. 


Page 
Hardening  portion  of  articles  ........        76 

side  tools  ...............  84,  85 

to  proper  degree   without 

tempering  ............        90 

unfinished  tools  ..........  80-85 

with  electric  furnace  .....        78 

with  lead  ...............  78,  86 

copper  ..................         6 

Hardening  steel,  cooling  baths  for.  .  .  78,  79 
Hardened       and       tempered      tools, 

straightening  ....................  97,  98 

Hematite  .........................         3 

High-speed  steel  ...................  90-94 

High-speed  steel,  annealing  .........  92-94 

hardening  .........        91 

tempering  .........  92-94 

High-speed  steel  tools,  air  blast  for 

hardening  ......................         91 

High-speed  steel  tools,  hardening  and 

tempering  ......................  90-94 

High-speed  steel  tools,  forging  .......        91 

grinding  .....        92 

History  of  machine  tools  ...........      1,  2 

Holes,  testing  depth  of  .............        21 

Holes    in  pipe-fittings    and  castings, 

plugging  .......................       172 

Hose  threads  .....................      118 


I 

Inches,    table    of    millimeters    with 
equivalents  in  .................  174 

Inches    with    equivalents    in    milli- 
meters, table  of  ................. 

Indicator,  speed  .................  163, 

test  ..................  141, 

Inside  calipers  .................... 

Iron,  cast  ......................... 

cold-drawn  wrought  ........... 

cold-rolled  wrought  ........... 


galvanized 

ores  of 

pig 

scrap 

wrought 
Iron  castings 
Iron  castings,  annealed 
malleable 
pickle  for 
Isometric  drawing.  .. 


-177 

173 
164 
142 
19 
3 
6 
5 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 

3,  5 

76 

5 

179 


Joint  runner,  asbestos. . . . 
Joints,  right  and  left  pipe. 

K 


Keyhole  calipers 

Key-seating  rule 

Key  ways,  laying  out .... 
Knife-edge  files 


Page 
111,  112 
136,  137 


19 

..20,  21 
..20,  21 

51 


Jaws,  soft  vise 

Joining  ends  01  belts. 
Joint,  lock  nut  pipe. . 


.  .30,  55,  58,  62 

159-163 

.  .119,  122 


Laboratories    for    teaching    machine 

construction 2 

Lacing  belts 159-162 

Lard  oil 108 

Lathe  and  planer  tools,  to  harden  and 

temper 82-85,  90-92 

Laying  out  work 17-24 

Lead 7 

float  files 52 

hardening 78,  86 

hardening  gas  furnace 86 

lined  fittings 107,  119,  120 

lined  pipe ,  .  107 

pipe.. 112 

Lead,  black.     See  Graphite. 

red 109 

white 109 

Leather  belting. . , 155,  156 

washers :...,.  112,  113 

Length  of  belts 156,  157 

Level 27 

Limonite 3 

Line  shafting,  speed  of 153 

Lining  pulleys.      See  Alining  pulleys, 
shafting.     See  Alining  and  lev- 
eling shafting. 

Litharge 113 

Lubricant  for  chipping 34 

filing 53 

Lubricants  for  threading  pipe 108,  109 

M 

Machine-cut  files 65 

Machine  filing 63,  64 

steel 4 

Machine,  breast  drilling 144 

ratchet  drilling 145 

Machine  construction,  equipment  for 

teaching ...  2 
laboratories  for 

teaching. ...  2 

Machine  tools,  history  of 1 

origin  of 1 


INDEX. 


187 


Page 

Machine  tools,  power  for  driving 153 

Machines,  hand-drilling 144,  145 

Machinists'  vise 29,  33,  54 

Magnetite 3 

Malleable  pipe  fittings 108,  119-125 

iron  castings 5 

Mandrel,  hardening 86,  87 

tempering 86,  87 

Manganese  bronze 7 

Manufacturing  machines,  equipment 

for 2 

Marking  for  scraping 68 

Materials  for  machines  and  tools ....      3-8 
Measurements,     English     system     of 

linear 16 

Measurements,     Metric     system     of 

linear 16,  17 

Mechanical  drawing 8-15 

Mercury  baths 78,  79 

Metal  packings 112,  113 

saw  cutting-off  machine 105 

worker's  crayon  (soapstone) .  .       142 

Metal,  Babbitt 7 

gun 7 

Metric    system    of    linear    measure- 
ments  16,  17 

Mica 3 

Mill  files 51 

Milling  cutters,  hardening  and  temper- 
ing carbon  steel 87-90 

hardening  and  temper- 
ing high-speed  steel       93 
scleroscope  for  testing 

hardness  of 98-101 

Millimeters,     table    of    inches    with 

equivalents  in 173 

Millimeters      with      equivalents      in 

inches,  table  of . .  174-177 

Molybdenum 90 

Monkey  wrenches 24,  25 

Monkey  wrenches,   pipe  attachment 

for 25 

Muffle  for  heating  to  harden 77,  78 

gas  furnaces 85,  93 

Music  wire ...  6 


'      ;  N 

Nickel "...  5 

steel 5 

tubes 114,  115 

Nickel-plated  fittings 123,  124 

tubing  tools 130,  132 

Nickel-plated  tubes,  seamless Ill 

Nippers  or  wire  cutters 27,  28 


Page 

Nitric  acid 171 

Nut,  adjusting  circular 26 

Nuts,  tightening 24,  25 


Oakum 112,  113 

Oil  baths 78 

stones 66,  67 

stoning  scrapers 66.  67 

tempering 88-94 

gas  furnaces 88,  90 

Oil-groove  chisels 37 

Oil,  hardening   and   tempering  high- 
speed steel  tools  in 92-94 

Open  belts 156,  157 

Open-hearth  steel 4 

Ores  of  iron 3 

Originating  standard  straight  edges. .        70 
surface  plates.  .        70 

Origin  of  machine  tools 1 

Orthographic  projection 9 

Outside  calipers 19 

Oxidizing  solutions  for  coloring  steel 
and  iron... 171,  172 


Pack  hardening.     See  Case-hardening 

Packing,  sheet  rubber 112 

Packings  for  unions,  piston  rods,  cylin- 
der heads,  etc 112,  113 

Packings,  metal 112,  113 

Peening  sheet  metal 142 

Perspective  drawing 8 

Phosphor  bronze 7 

Phosphorus 3 

Piano  wire 6 

Pickle  for  brazed  work 151 

iron  castings 179 

Pig  iron 3 

Pillar  files 50 

Pinning  of  files 53 

Pipe  attachment  for  monkey  wrench.       25 

coils  and  bends 137 

cutter 127-131,  134,  135 

die  stocks 126-128,  130,  132,  133 

dies.  108,  126,  127,  130-133,  138,  139 

Pipe  fittings 107-126 

for     hydraulic      pressure.     See 

Double-extra  strong  pipe, 
taps.  ..     108,  110,  127,  128,  130,  132 

threads 108 

tools 126-135 

vises 127,  1  9-131,  133,  134 


188 


INDEX. 


Page 
Pipe,  aluminium 112 

ammonia.       See    Wrought-iron 
pipe  extra  strong. 

block  tin 112 

brass,  copper  and  bronze,  seam- 
less drawn 109-111 

brine.     See  Wrought-iron  pipe. 

cast-iron Ill,  112 

cast-iron,  drain  or  soil Ill,  112 

compressed  air 106,  107 

copper 109,  110 

double-extra  strong 106,  117 

extra  strong 106,  117 

galvanized  steel  and  wrought-iron   107 

gas 106,  107 

gasoline 106,  107 

hand  method  of  cutting  off.  .  134,  135 

hot  water 107,  109-112 

iron-size  brass 110 

lead-lined 107 

lubricants  for  threading 108,  109 

plumbers'  sizes  brass 109-111 

copper 109,  110 

repairing  splits  in 172 

seamless  lead  or  block  tin 112 

tin-lined 107 

water 106-112 

wrought-iron 106,  107,  115,  116 

Pipe  and  pipe  fittings,  aluminium. .  .      112 
Pipe   and  tubing   threads,  taper  per 

foot  of 108,  110,  132 

Pipe  equivalents,  table  of 113 

Pipe  fitting,  measuring  length  of.  ...      136 

problem  in 135-137 

Pipe  fittings,  regular 108,  119-126 

right  and  left, 

108,   119-121,  136,  137 

Pipe  joint  cement 109 

Pipe  joint  connections,  right  and  left 

136,  137 

Pipe  joints,  lead 112 

tin 112 

Pipe  joints  by     hand,     making      up 

screwed 127,  129-139 

by    power,     making     up 

large 139,  140 

Pipe  lines  by  color,  to  identify 118 

Pipe  sizes,  tables    of  Briggs*  Stand- 
ard  115,  116 

standard 106,  115,  116 

steel 106,  115,  116 

tables   of   dimensions  of 
*•      extra  and  double-extra 
strong     steel    and 
wrought-iron 117 


Page 

Pipe  threading  by  hand 133 

threading     with      machine     by 

hand 138,  139 

threading     with      machine      by 

power 139,  140 

Pipe  wrenches,  Stillson 127,  129,  134 

Planer  tools,  to  harden  and  temper, 

82-85,  90-92 

Platinum 8 

Platinum,  soldering 148 

Pliers 27 

Plumbago.     See  Graphite  and  Black 
lead. 

Plumb  bob,  mercury 26,  27 

Plumbers'  sizes   or   fine  thread    pipe 

tools 130,  131 

Plumbers'  sizes,  brass  pipe  or  tubing  109-1 1 1 
taps  and  dies.  110,  130,  131 

Pneumatic  hammer .       39 

Polishing  bolt  heads 74 

curved  work 74 

flat  surfaces 7  J 

work  before  tempering,. .  .  .82-87 

Polishing,  abrasives  for 71 

lubricant  for 73 

Porcelain 3 

Portable  blowpipe 150,  151 

Potassium  cyanide  for  case-hardening,  94,  95 

Power  for  driving  machine  tools 153 

hacksaw 102,  103 

transmission 153-170 

Press,  straightening 97,  142 

Pressed  steel  pulleys 153 

Projection,  orthographic 9 

Prussiate  of  potash 94,  95 

Pulleys 153-155 

Pulleys,  alining 158,  159 

balancing 165,  166 

calculating  the  size  of 154,  155 

cast-iron 153,  154 

crown  and  straight-face ....      154 

guide '. '  159 

pressed  steel 153 

solid 153,  154 

speed  of 154,  155 

split 153,  154 

to  adjust 159 

wood 153 

Punch,  center 22 

Pyroligneous  acid 171 

Pyrometer  for  measuring  high  tem- 
peratures   93,  94 


Quarter-turn  and  twisted  belts 158,  159 


INDEX. 


189 


R 

Page 

Railing  fittings 123,  125 

Rasp-cut  files 46,  47,  52 

Rasp,  half-round 47,  52 

Ratchet  drilling  machine 145 

Rawhide  belt  lacing 159 

Reading  working  drawings 8,  14 

Red  lead , 109 

Revolvers,  bluing 171 

Rifflers,  bent 52 

Right    and    left    pipe    joints,  making 

up 136,  137 

Risers 179 

Riveting 143 

crank  pin 143 

Riveting,  flush 143 

Rivets,  copper 143 

steel  and  iron 143 

Rope  drive 155 

Rottenstone 72 

Rough  and  finish  pipe  thread 133 

chip 32 

file 58 

Roughing  cut 32 

Round  files 52,  61 

Round-nose  chisels 36,  37 

Rubber  belting 155 

washers 112,  113 

Rubber  packing,  sheet 112 

Rule,  key-seating 20,  21 

standard  steel 18,  19 

two-foot 18 

Rumblers 179 

Rust-joint  or  special  cement 171 


Safe-edge  files,  uses  of 48,  60,  61 

Sandblast 179 

Sand,  tempering  in 77 

Sand  paper,  numbered  sizes  of 72 

Saw  file 51 

Sawing  metal 102,  103,  105 

Scale  of  drawing 13 

Schedule-of-operations-drawings 13 

Schedule  of  operations  for  alining  and 

leveling    shafting,    line    and    level 

method 166,  167 

Schedule  of  operations  for  alining  and 

leveling  shafting,  transit  method,  168,  169 
Schedule    of    operations    for    alining 
"pulleys  for  a  quarter-turn  belt.  .158,  159 
Schedule  of  operations  for  Babbiting 

an  engine  bearing 151,  152 

Schedule  of  operations  for  brazing  cast 

iron 150,  151 


Page 
Schedule  of  operations  for  brazing 

with  hand  blowpipes 148,  149 

Schedule  of  operations  for  brazing 

with  stationary  blowpipe 149,  150 

Schedule  of  operations  for  chipping 

plane  surfaces 38 

Schedule  of  operations  for  cutting 

off  pipe,  hand  method 134,  135 

Schedule  of  operations  for  filing 

plane  surfaces 57-59 

Schedule  of  operations  for  hand  pipe 

threading 133 

Schedule  of  operations  for  hardening 

and     tempering    high-speed     steel 

cutter 92 

Schedule  of  operations  for  hardening 

and  tempering  high-speed  steel  mill-  < 

ing  cutter 93 

Schedule  of  operations  for  heating  a 

high-speed    steel    tap    in    barium 

chloride , 93,  94 

Schedule  of  operations  for  lacing  large 

belts 161 

Schedule  of  operations  for  lacing  small 

and  medium  belts 159,  160 

Schedule  of  operations  for  making 

right  and  left  pipe  joint  connec- 
tions  136,  137 

Schedule  of  operations  for  making  up 

a  screwed  pipe  joint 134 

Schedule  of  operations  for  measuring 

hardness    of    milling    cutter    with 

scleroscope 99,  100 

Schedule  of  operations  for  problem  in 

pipe  fitting 135,  136 

Schedule  of  operations  for  scraping 

flat  surfaces 68,  69 

Schedule  of  operations  for  soldering 

brass 147,  148 

Schedule  of  operations  for  straightening 

hardened  and  tempered  tools 97,  98 

Schedule  of  operations  for  threading 

pipe  by  hand 133 

Schedule  of  operations  for  threading 

pipe     with     hand-pipe     threading 

machine 138,  139 

Schedule  of  operations  for  threading 

pipe    with    power    pipe-threading 

machine 139,  140 

Schedule  of  operations  for  using  a 

breast  drilling  machine 144 

Schedule  of  operations  for  using  a 

ratchet  drilling  machine 145 

Schedule  of  operations  for  using  a 

speed  indicator 163,  164 


190 


INDEX. 


Page 
Scleroscope,  testing  hardness  with  .  .98-101 

Scrap  iron 3 

Scrapers,  flat 66-68 

to  sharpen 66,  67 

half-round 71 

Scraping  Babbitt  bearings 70,  71 

bronze  bearings 70,  71 

flat  surfaces 68,  69 

V-ways  of  a  machine 70 

without  a  standard 70 

Scraping,  marking  for 68 

ornamental 69 

uses  of 66 

Scraping  or  filing,  bedding  to  mark 

work  for 70 

Scratch  gages 21 

Screwdriver 26 

Scriber,  forged 22 

Section  lining  on  drawings 11 

Shafting 3,  5,  153 

Shafting,  cold-rolled 5,  153 

line    and    level     method    of 
alining  and  leveling. .  166,  167 

steel 5,  153 

to  straighten 141,  142 

transit    method    of   alining 

and  leveling 168,  169 

wrought-iron 3,  5,  153 

Sheet  rubber  packing 112 

steel 4 

Shop    equipment  for  manufacturing 

machines 2 

Side  chisels 37 

Side  tool,  hardening 84,  85 

tempering 84,  85 

Silicon 3 

Silver,  soldering 148 

Single-cut  files 46,  51 

Sketches 13,  14 

Slip  of  belts 155 

Smooth  files,  dead 47,  49 

hand 49 

Snagging  castings 32,  179 

Socket  wrenches 26 

Soft  metal  furnaces 86 

Soil  or  drain  pipe,  cast-iron Ill,  112 

Solder  for  brazing 148 

Solder,  hard 148 

soft 146 

Soldering 146-148 

acid 146 

brass 146-148 

by  sweating 147,  148 

gold 148 

platinum 148 


Page 

Soldering  silver 148 

with  soldering-iron 146-148 

Soldering,  flux  for 146 

hard 148 

Soldering-iron 146 

Soldering-iron,  tinning 146 

Solid  pulleys 153,  154 

Solutions  for  coloring  steel  and  iron, 

oxidizing 171 

Solutions  for  etching,  acid 171 

Spanner  wrenches 26 

Speed  indicator 163,  164 

of  emery  wheels 41 

line  shafting 153 

pulleys 154,  155 

Spelter  for  brazing 148 

Split  pulleys 153,  154 

Splits  in  pipes,  repairing 172 

Springs,  to  harden  and  temper 85,  89 

Sprocket  wheels 155 

Sprues 179 

Square,  center 20 

combination. 20 

Square  files 50 

Squares,  try 56,  57 

Steam  pipe 106,  107,  109-111 

Standard  pipe 106,  115,  116 

steel  rules 18,  19 

straight  edges 20,  70 

surface  plates 67,  68 

Standards  of  linear  measurements.  .  .  16,  17 

Star  shot 179 

Stationary  blowpipe 149,  150 

Steel 4,  5,  6 

Steel  and  iron  rivets 143 

castings 5 

pipe 106,  115,  116 

shafting 5,  153 

wire 6 

Steel,  Bessemer 4 

carbon 4,  5,  6 

chrome 5 

cold-drawn 6 

cooling  baths  for  hardening.  .  .  78,  79 
etching    names  and  figures  on 

hardened 171 

galvanized 4 

.high-speed 90-94 

machine 4 

nickel „       5 

open-hearth 4 

percentage  of  carbon  in 4,  5 

sheet 4 

to  anneal  carbon 75,  79 

tool.     See  Carbon  steel 


INDEX. 


191 


Page 

Steel,  vanadium 5 

Steel  and  iron,  browning 171,  172 

Steel  and  iron  light  or  dark,  bluing.       171 

Steel  castings,  vanadium 5 

and  wrought-iron,  cold-rolled. .     5,  6 

pulleys,  pressed 153 

tubes,  seamless  drawn 113,  114 

Stillson  pipe  wrenches 127,  129,  134 

Stock.     See  Materials 

room 2 

Stoning  scrapers,  oil 66,  67 

Straight  edge,  standard  steel 20 

Straight  edges,  standard  scraped ....        70 

cast-iron 70 

to  originate 70 

Straightening  bars  of  steel 141,  142 

hardened  and  tempered 

tools 97,  98 

press 97,  142 

work  by  peening 142 

Straightening  shafts  in  a  lathe,  testing 

and 141,  142 

Sulphate  of  copper 17,  18 

Sulphur 3 

Sulphuric  acid 179 

Surface  file  holder 60 

Surface  plates,  standard 67 

to  originate 70 

Surfaces,  filing  large 60 

Sweating  to  solder. 147,  148 

Swiss  pattern  files 47 


Table  of  abbreviations  on  drawings. .  12 
driven  and  bored  well  fittings  126 
freezing,  melting  and  boiling 

temperatures     of     metals 

and  common  substances, 

178,  179 

gas  fittings 125 

hose  threads 118 

inches   with   equivalents   in 

millimeters 173 

millimeters  with  equivalents 

in  inches 174-177 

pipe  equivalents 113 

plumbers'  sizes  or  fine  thread 

pipe  tools 131 

plumbers'     sizes    taps    and 

dies 110 

railing  fittings 125 

seamless    drawn    brass    and 

copper  tubes  in  iron  pipe 

sizes...  118 


Page 
Table  of  temperatures  and  colors  for 

tempering 89 

valves  and  cocks 124 

Tables    of    Briggs'    Standard    pipe 

measurement 115,  116 

dimensions  of  extra  and 
double     extra     strong 
wrought-iron  pipe ....      117 
pipe  fittings.  120-122,  124-126 
pipe  tools, 

126,  128,  129,  131,  132 

Tallow 109 

Tanks,  cooling 78,  80-87,  92-95 

Taper  files 48,  49,  51 

Taps,  hardening 85,  93,  94 

pipe 108,  110,  127,  128,  130,  132 

tempering 86,  93,  94 

Teaching     machine     construction, 

equipment  for 2 

Temper,  file  test  for 77 

thermometer  test  for 77 

Temperatures  of  metals  and  common 
substances,  table  of  freezing,  melt- 
ing and  boiling 178,  179 

Tempering  carbon  steel 75-90 

milling  cutter       87 

diamond-point  tool 82,  83 

finished  tools, 

76,  77,  86-88,    90,  93,  94 

high-speed  steel 92-94 

milling  cutter,  93 
in  charcoal  or  coke  flame.        82 

in  oil 88-94 

in  sand 77 

mandrel 86,  87 

side  tool 84,  85 

table  of  temperatures  and 

colors 89 

tap 86,  93,  94 

unfinished  tools ...  76,  77,  80-85 

Tempering,  color  test  for 76,  77 

Test  indicator 141,  142 

Testing  flatness  of  filed  surfaces 56 

squareness  of  filed  surfaces.  .        57 

Testing  hardness,  scleroscope  for 99 

Thermometer     for      measuring    low 

temperatures.  ...  88,  90 
test  for  temper.  .77,  88-90 

Thread,  rough  and  finish  pipe 133 

Threading  pipe  by  haniL_. 133 

with  hand  pipe  thread- 
ing machine 138,  139 

with  power  pipe  thread- 
ing  machine. ...  139,  140 
Threads,  pipe 108 


192 


INDEX. 


Page 

Three-square  files 51 

Tin 7 

Tin-lined  fittings 107,  119,  120 

pipe 107 

Tin  (block)  pipe,  seamless 112 

Tinning  soldering-iron 146 

Tobin  bronze 7 

Tool  steel.     See  Carbon  steel. 

Tool  grinders,  wet 40,  42,  43 

grinding 44,  45 

room 2 

Tool  room,  check  system  for 2 

Tools  for  nickel-plated  tubing 130,  132 

Tools,  charts  of  pipe 127,  130 

forging  high-speed  steel 91 

grinding 44,  45 

guide  principle  in  hand 29 

hardening  and  tempering  lathe 

and  planer 82-85,   90-95 

materials  for 3-8 

plumbers'  sizes  or  fine  thread 

pipe 130,  131 

straightening   hardened    and 

tempered 97,  98 

tempering  finished, 

76,  77,  86-88,  90,  93,  94 
unfinished.. 76,  77,  80-85 
Tools    for    brass    pipe    and    tubing, 

plumbers'  sizes  of 130,  131 

Transmission,  power 153,  170 

Truing  emery  wheel 42,  43 

grindstone 44 

Try  squares 56,  57 

Tubing,  brazed 110 

nickel 114,  115 

seamless  drawn  steel 113,  114 

Tubing  threads,  taper  of 110,  111 

tools,  nickel-plated 130,  132 

Tubes,  brass,  copper  and  bronze  seam- 
less  109-111 

nickel-plated  seamless Ill 

Tubes  of  brass  and  copper  in  iron  pipe 

sizes,  seamless 118 

Tumbling  barrels 179 

Tungsten 90 

U 


Page 

Valves 123,  124 

Vanadium  iron  castings 3 

steel 5 

forgings 5 

castings 5 

Vaseline 86,  171 

Vise,  machinists' 29,  33,  54 

Vises,  height  of  machinists' 30 

pipe 127,  129-131,  133,  134 

soft  jaws  for 30,  55,  58,  62 

V-ways  of  a  machine,  scraping 70 

W 

Warding  files 50 

Washers,  fiber,  leather,  asbestos,  rub- 
ber and  metal 112,  113 

Water  annealing 75 

pipe 106-112 

Well  fittings,  driven  or  bored 123,  126 

White  lead 109 

Wire  belt  lacing 162 

cutters 27,  28 

Wire,  Bessemer  steel 6 

carbon  steel , . . .          6 

copper 7 

filing 63 

music 6 

Wood  in  machine  construction 8 

pulleys 153 

Work,  laying  out 17-24 

Working  drawings 8-15 

WTrench,  flange 129,  130 

Wrenches,  monkey 24,  25 

pipe  attachment  for  monkey     25 

socket 26 

spanner 26 

Stillsonpipe 127,  129,  134 

Wrought  iron 3 

pipe 106,  107,  115,  116 

shafting 3,  5,  153 


Yard,  Imperial 16 

Z 


Universal  surface  gages 23       Zinc . 


UNIYERSF 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $I.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


OCT  161935     * 

14lU^55<  ^ 

OCT201936 

IUN4    1955  LU 

i 

orn        4     1939 

—  Str     ** 

OCT  SI  tW» 

AUG    8    1940 

,  FEB  10  194ZE 

iN/Tpcji  ._, 

UN/\/  Affi  4  tn/i 

r\ 

Ul   ^OP 

* 

LD  21-100m-7,'33 

- 


U.C.BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 

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